The Police in America: An Introduction, with PowerWeb

by WALKER SAMUEL

• ISBN13: 9780072532401
• ISBN10: 0072532408
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-11-28
• Publisher: MCG

Summary

The Police in America: An Introduction provides a comprehensive introduction to the foundations of policing in the United States today. Descriptive and analytical, the text is designed to offer undergraduate students a balanced and up-to-date overview of who the police are and what they do, the problems they face, and the many reforms and innovations that have taken place in policing. The book is designed primarily for undergraduate students enrolled in their first police or law enforcement course such as Introduction to Policing, Police and Society, Police Function, or Law Enforcement Systems.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxv
PART ONE FOUNDATIONS
Police and Society	3	(20)
Introduction: Why Police?	3	(2)
The Goals of This Book	4	(1)
Myths, Realities, and Possibilities	4	(1)
Myths about Policing	5	(1)
Sources of the Crime-Fighter Image	5	(1)
Consequences of the Crime-Fighter Image	5	(1)
The Realities of Policing	6	(6)
Factors That Shape the Police Role	9	(1)
The Authority to Use Force	10	(1)
The Police and Social Control	11	(1)
The Police and Social Control Systems	12	(1)
Possibilities	12	(4)
Functional Specialization	13	(1)
Problem-Oriented Policing	14	(1)
Community Policing	15	(1)
Zero-Tolerance Policing	15	(1)
Honest Law Enforcement	16	(1)
The Implications of Change	16	(1)
Summary	17	(1)
Case Study: Reality-Based Police Television: Do These Programs Distort Reality?	18	(5)
The History of the American Police	23	(35)
Introduction	23	(1)
The Relevance of History	24	(1)
The English Heritage	24	(2)
Creation of the Modern Police: London, 1829	25	(1)
Law Enforcement in Colonial America	26	(2)
The Quality of Colonial Law Enforcement	27	(1)
The First Modern American Police	28	(1)
American Policing in the Nineteenth Century 1834-1900	29	(4)
Personnel Standards	29	(1)
Patrol Work	29	(1)
The Police and the Public	30	(1)
Corruption and Politics	31	(1)
The Failure of Police Reform	32	(1)
The Impact of the Police on Society	32	(1)
The Twentieth Century: The Origins of Police Professionalism, 1900-1930	33	(4)
The Professionalization Movement	33	(1)
The Reform Agenda	34	(1)
The Impact of Professionalization	35	(1)
The New Police Subculture	35	(1)
Police and Racial Minorities	36	(1)
New Law Enforcement Agencies	36	(1)
The New Communications Technology	37	(1)
New Directions in Police Administration, 1930-1960	38	(2)
The Wickersham Commission Report	38	(1)
Professionalization Continues	38	(1)
J. Edgar Hoover and the War on Crime	39	(1)
The Police Crisis of the 1960s	40	(4)
The Cops and the Supreme Court	40	(1)
The Cops and Civil Rights	41	(1)
The Police in the National Spotlight	41	(2)
The Research Revolution	43	(1)
New Developments in Policing, 1970-2000	44	(5)
The Changing Police Officer	44	(1)
The Control of Police Discretion	45	(1)
Police Unions	45	(1)
Citizen Oversight of Police	46	(1)
Community Policing and Problem-Oriented Policing	46	(1)
Race and Ethnic Conflict Continues	47	(2)
Summary: The Lessons of the Past	49	(1)
Case Study: Police Patrol Practices	50	(8)
The Contemporary Law Enforcement Industry	58	(28)
Introduction	59	(3)
Basic Features of American Law Enforcement	59	(1)
An ``Industry'' Perspective	60	(1)
An International Perspective	61	(1)
A Definition of Terms	62	(1)
What Is a Law Enforcement Agency?	62	(1)
Who Is a Police Officer?	62	(1)
Size and Scope of the Law Enforcement Industry	63	(3)
The Number of Law Enforcement Agencies	63	(1)
The Number of Law Enforcement Personnel	64	(1)
Understanding Law Enforcement Personnel Data	64	(1)
Civilianization	65	(1)
The Police-Population Ratio	65	(1)
The Cost of Police Protection	66	(1)
Municipal Police	66	(1)
County Police	67	(1)
The County Sheriff	67	(1)
The Role of the Sheriff	67	(1)
Other Local agencies	68	(1)
The Constable	68	(1)
The Coroner	68	(1)
Special District Police	69	(1)
Campus Police	69	(1)
Native American Tribal Police	69	(1)
State Law Enforcement agencies	70	(1)
Roles and Responsibilities	70	(1)
Federal law Enforcement agencies	71	(1)
Roles and Responsibilities	71	(1)
The Private Security Industry	71	(1)
The Fragmentation Issue	72	(3)
Alternatives to Fragmentation	74	(1)
The Fragmentation Problem Reconsidered	75	(1)
Minimum Standards: American Style	75	(2)
The Role of the Federal Government	76	(1)
The Role of State Governments	76	(1)
Accreditation	77	(1)
Summary	77	(1)
Case Study: Special District Police: The New York City Transit Police	77	(9)
PART TWO POLICE WORK
Patrol: The Backbone of Policing	86	(34)
Introduction	87	(1)
The Central Role of Patrol	87	(2)
The Functions of Patrol	89	(1)
The Organization and Delivery of Patrol	89	(5)
Number of Sworn Officers	89	(1)
Allocation and Distribution of Officers to Patrol	90	(2)
Assignment to Shifts and Areas	92	(1)
``Hot Spots''	92	(1)
Types of Patrol	93	(1)
Foot Patrol	93	(1)
One-Officer versus Two-Officer Cars	93	(1)
Staffing Patrol Beats	94	(1)
Styles of Patrol	94	(1)
Individual Styles	94	(1)
Supervisors' Styles	95	(1)
Organizational Styles	95	(1)
Patrol Supervision	95	(1)
The Role of the Sergeant	95	(1)
How Much Actual Police Protection? A Summary	96	(1)
The Communications Center	96	(3)
The Nerve Center of Policing	96	(1)
911 Systems	97	(1)
Processing Calls for Service	98	(1)
The Systematic Study of Police Patrol	99	(1)
The Call Service Workload	100	(2)
The Volume of Calls	100	(1)
Types of Calls	100	(2)
Aspects of Patrol Work	102	(3)
Response Time	102	(1)
Officer Use of Patrol Time	103	(1)
Evasion of Duty	104	(1)
High-Speed Pursuits	104	(1)
The Effectiveness of Patrol	105	(4)
Initial Experiments	105	(1)
The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment	106	(1)
Findings and Implications	107	(1)
The Newark Foot Patrol Experiment	108	(1)
New Questions, New Approaches	109	(1)
Improving Patrol	109	(4)
Differential Response to Calls	109	(1)
Telephone Report Units	110	(1)
311 Nonemergency Numbers	110	(1)
Non-English 911 Call Services	111	(1)
Reverse 911	111	(1)
Computers and Video Cameras in Patrol Cars	111	(1)
Police Aides or Cadets	111	(1)
Directed Patrol and ``Hot Spots''	112	(1)
Beyond Traditional Patrol	112	(1)
Summary	113	(1)
Case Study: Kansas City (MO) Gun Experiment (Excerpt)	113	(7)
Peacekeeping and Order Maintenance	120	(38)
Introduction	121	(2)
The Police Role	122	(1)
Calling the Police	123	(2)
Public Expectations	123	(1)
Police Response	124	(1)
Traffic Enforcement	125	(1)
Drunk-Driving Crackdowns	126	(1)
Policing Domestic Disputes	126	(3)
Defining Our Terms	127	(1)
The Prevalence of Domestic Violence	127	(1)
Calling the Police	127	(2)
Danger to Police?	129	(1)
Police Response to Domestic Disturbances	129	(5)
Factors Influencing the Arrest Decision	130	(1)
A Revolution in Policing: Mandatory Arrest	131	(1)
The Impact of Arrest on Domestic Violence	132	(1)
Impact of Mandatory Arrest Laws and Policies	132	(2)
Other Laws and Policies	134	(1)
The Future of Domestic Violence Policy	134	(1)
Policing Vice	134	(2)
Prostitution	135	(1)
Gambling	136	(1)
Policing the Homeless	136	(3)
The Old Homeless Problem	137	(1)
The New Homeless Problem	137	(1)
Police and the Chronic Alcoholic	138	(1)
Policing the Mentally Ill	139	(2)
Police Response to the Mentally Ill	139	(2)
Old Problems/New Programs	141	(1)
Policing People with Aids	141	(2)
Policing Juveniles	143	(4)
Controversy over the Police Role	143	(1)
Specialized Juvenile Units	144	(1)
On-the-Street Encounters	145	(1)
The Issue of Race Discrimination	146	(1)
Crime Prevention Programs	146	(1)
Summary	147	(1)
Case Study: Westminster, California, Police Department's Shield Program	147	(11)
The Police and Crime	158	(42)
Introduction	159	(1)
The Police and Crime	160	(2)
Crime Control Strategies	160	(1)
Crime Control Assumptions	161	(1)
Measuring Effectiveness	162	(1)
Summary	162	(1)
Preventing Crime	162	(1)
Apprehending Criminals	163	(3)
Citizen Reporting of Crime	163	(1)
Reporting and Unfounding Crimes	164	(2)
Criminal Investigation	166	(1)
Myths about Detective Work	166	(1)
The Organization of Detective Work	166	(1)
The Investigation Process	167	(2)
The Preliminary Investigation	167	(1)
Arrest Discretion	167	(1)
Follow-Up Investigations	168	(1)
The Reality of Detective Work	168	(1)
Case Screening	169	(1)
Measuring the Effectiveness of Criminal Investigation	169	(2)
The Clearance Rate	169	(1)
Defining an Arrest	170	(1)
Success and Failure in Solving Crimes	171	(3)
Eyewitness Identification	172	(1)
Criminalistics	172	(1)
Officer Productivity	173	(1)
The Problem of Case Attrition	173	(1)
Improving Criminal Investigations	174	(1)
Targeting Career Criminals	175	(1)
Special Investigative Techniques	175	(2)
Undercover Police Work	175	(1)
Informants	176	(1)
Policing Drugs	177	(3)
Drug Enforcement Strategies	177	(1)
Retail Drug Enforcement	178	(1)
Minorities and the War on Drugs	178	(1)
Demand Reduction: The D.A.R.E. Program	179	(1)
New Approaches to Drug Enforcement	179	(1)
Policing Gangs and Gang-Related Crimes	180	(3)
Gang Suppression	181	(2)
Gang Prevention: The G.R.E.A.T Program	183	(1)
Policing Guns and Gun Crime	183	(1)
The Kansas City Gun Experiment	183	(1)
Policing Hate Crime	184	(1)
The Scope and Nature of Hate Crime	184	(1)
The Police Response to Hate Crime	184	(1)
Current Problems Facing Law Enforcement	185	(4)
School Crime	185	(1)
Terrorism	186	(2)
Computer Crime	188	(1)
Summary	189	(1)
Case Study: Recent Innovations in Gang Violence Reduction	189	(11)
Innovations in Policing	200	(44)
Introduction	201	(1)
Impetus for Change in Policing	202	(1)
The Roots of Community Policing: The Broken Windows Hypothesis	203	(2)
Types of Disorder	204	(1)
Characteristics of Community Policing	205	(7)
Community Partnerships	206	(1)
The Effectiveness of Community Partnerships	207	(2)
Organizational Change	209	(1)
Evidence of Organizational Change	210	(1)
Problem Solving	211	(1)
Putting It All Together: Implementing Community Policing At the Department Level	212	(4)
Chicago's Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS) Program	212	(4)
Community Policing: Problems and Prospects	216	(3)
Rhetoric or Reality?	216	(1)
Too Rapid Expansion	216	(2)
A Legitimate Police Role	218	(1)
A Political Police?	218	(1)
Decentralization and Accountability	218	(1)
Conflicting Community Interests	219	(1)
The Roots of Problem-Oriented Policing	219	(1)
The Problem-Solving Process	220	(4)
Scanning	222	(1)
Analysis	222	(1)
Response	222	(1)
Assessment	222	(2)
Effectiveness of Problem-Oriented Policing	224	(4)
Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News	224	(1)
SMART in Oakland	225	(1)
The Boston Gun Project: Operation Cease Fire	226	(1)
Problem-Oriented Policing in Jersey City, New Jersey	227	(1)
Characteristics of Zero-Tolerance Policing	228	(4)
The Effectiveness of Zero-Tolerance Policing	228	(3)
Potential Problems with Zero-Tolerance Policing	231	(1)
Summary: The New Era in Policing?	232	(2)
Case Study: Addressing Repeat Calls for Service in San Diego, California: Problem-Oriented Policing In Action	234	(10)
PART THREE POLICE PROBLEMS
Police Discretion	244	(28)
Introduction	245	(1)
Discretion in Police Work	246	(1)
A Definition of Discretion	246	(1)
Aspects of Police Discretion	247	(2)
Street-Level Bureaucrats	247	(1)
Potential Abuse of Discretion	248	(1)
Positive Uses of Discretion	248	(1)
Decision Points and Decision Makers	249	(1)
Patrol Officer Decisions	249	(1)
Order Maintenance Decisions	249	(1)
Criminal Investigation Decisions	250	(1)
Law Enforcement Policy Decisions	250	(1)
Underlying Sources of Police Discretion	250	(1)
The Nature of the Criminal Law	250	(1)
The Work Environment of Policing	251	(1)
Limited Police Resources	251	(1)
Factors Influencing Discretionary Decisions	251	(5)
Situational Factors	251	(2)
Police-Citizen Interactions	253	(1)
The Neighborhood Environment	253	(1)
Characteristics of the Individual Officer	254	(1)
Official Department Policy	254	(1)
Informal Organizational Culture	255	(1)
Local Political Culture	255	(1)
The Control of Discretion	256	(2)
The Need for Control	256	(1)
Abolishing Discretion	256	(1)
Enhancing Professional Judgment	257	(1)
Bureaucracy and the Control of Discretion	257	(1)
Written Policies	258	(1)
Administrative Rulemaking	258	(7)
Examples of Administrative Rulemaking	258	(2)
Principles of Administrative Rulemaking	260	(1)
Advantages of Written Rules	260	(1)
The Impact of Administrative Rulemaking	261	(1)
Ensuring Compliance with Rules	261	(1)
Codifying Rules: The Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) Manual	261	(1)
Systematic Rulemaking	262	(2)
The Limits of Administrative Rulemaking	264	(1)
Summary	265	(1)
Case Study: ``Broken Windows'' and Police Discretion	265	(7)
Police-Community Relations	272	(48)
Introduction	273	(1)
A Definition of Police-Community Relations	274	(4)
Different Racial and Ethnic Groups	275	(1)
A Changing Multicultural Society	276	(1)
Definitions of Race and Ethnicity	277	(1)
Gender and Sexual Preference	278	(1)
Discrimination Versus Disparity	278	(1)
A Contextual approach To Police-Citizen Interactions	278	(1)
Public Opinion and the Police	279	(6)
Racial and Ethnic Differences	281	(1)
Attitudes about Police Use of Force	281	(1)
Race and Class	281	(1)
Age	282	(1)
Intercity Variations	282	(1)
The Impact of Controversial Incidents	283	(1)
The Detroit Exception	283	(1)
Expectations about Police Performance	283	(1)
The Police and the Larger Society	284	(1)
Police and Other Occupations	284	(1)
Summary	284	(1)
Police Perceptions of Citizens	285	(1)
Sources of Police Attitudes	286	(1)
Sources of Police-Community Relations Problems	286	(1)
Level of Police Protection	287	(2)
Inadequate Police Protection	287	(1)
Underprotection versus Overenforcement	288	(1)
Police Field Practices	289	(10)
Deadly Force	289	(2)
Use of Physical Force	291	(2)
Arrests	293	(1)
Traffic Stops: ``Driving While Black'' and ``Driving While Brown''	294	(1)
Sex Discrimination: ``Driving While Female''	295	(1)
Field Interrogations and Searches	295	(1)
Being ``Out of Place'' and Getting Stopped	296	(1)
Conflicting Evidence	296	(1)
The Heart of the Problem: Crime Fighting, Stereotyping, Race, and Ethnicity	297	(1)
Verbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic Slurs	297	(1)
Canine Units	298	(1)
Delay in Responding to Calls	298	(1)
Abuse of Gay Men, Lesbians, and Transgendered Persons	299	(1)
Summary	299	(1)
Administrative Practices	299	(1)
Handling Citizen Complaints	299	(1)
Police Employment Practices	300	(3)
Employment Discrimination	300	(1)
The Goals of Equal Employment Opportunity	301	(1)
Signs of Progress	302	(1)
Employing Newly Arrived Ethnic Groups	302	(1)
Does the Color of the Officer Make a Difference?	303	(1)
Improving Police-Community Relations	303	(4)
Special Police-Community Relations Units	304	(1)
Race Relations and Human Relations Training	305	(1)
Language Training for Non-English Speakers	306	(1)
``Best Practices'' in Policing	306	(1)
Community Policing and Improving PCR	307	(1)
Summary	307	(1)
Case Study: Responding to Community Crises: The U.S. Community Relations Service	307	(13)
Police Corruption	320	(30)
Introduction	321	(1)
A Definition of Police Corruption	322	(1)
The Costs of Police Corruption	323	(1)
Types of Corruption	324	(4)
Gratuities	324	(1)
Bribes	325	(1)
Theft and Burglary	326	(1)
Internal Corruption	327	(1)
Corruption and Brutality	327	(1)
Levels of Corruption	328	(1)
Type I: Rotten Apples and Rotten Pockets	328	(1)
Type II: Pervasive Unorganized Corruption	328	(1)
Type III: Pervasive Organized Corruption	328	(1)
Theories of Police Corruption	329	(3)
Individual Officer Explanations	329	(1)
Social Structural Explanations	329	(2)
The Nature of Police Work	331	(1)
The Police Organization	331	(1)
The Police Subculture	332	(1)
Becoming Corrupt	332	(1)
The Moral Careers of Individual Officers	332	(1)
Corrupting Organizations	333	(1)
Controlling Corruption	333	(1)
Internal Corruption Control Strategies	334	(7)
The Attitude of the Chief	334	(1)
Rules and Regulations	335	(1)
Managing Anticorruption Investigations	336	(1)
Investigative Tactics	337	(1)
Cracking the ``Blue Curtain''	338	(1)
Proactive Integrity Tests	338	(1)
Effective Supervision	338	(1)
Rewarding the Good Officers	339	(1)
Personnel Recruitment	340	(1)
External Corruption Control Approaches	341	(2)
Special Investigations	341	(1)
Criminal Prosecution	341	(1)
Mobilizing Public Opinion	342	(1)
Altering the External Environment	343	(1)
The Limits of Anticorruption Efforts	343	(1)
Summary	343	(1)
Case Study: Police Integrity-New Orleans Style	343	(7)
Accountability of the Police	350	(36)
Introduction	351	(1)
A Definition of Accountability	352	(1)
Basic Issues in Police Accountability	352	(2)
What, How, and to Whom?	352	(1)
The ``Three E's''	353	(1)
The Dilemmas of Policing in a Democracy	353	(1)
A Historical Perspective on Accountability	354	(1)
Accountability for What the Police Do	354	(2)
The Traditional Approach	354	(1)
New Measures of Police Service	355	(1)
Compstat: A New Approach	355	(1)
Accountability for How the Police Do Their Job	356	(1)
Internal Mechanisms of Accountability	356	(1)
Supervision	356	(4)
Routine Supervision	356	(1)
The Impact of Organizational Culture	357	(1)
Close Supervision	358	(1)
Written Policies and Reporting Requirements	358	(1)
Performance Evaluations	359	(1)
Internal affairs Units	360	(3)
The ``Code of Silence''	361	(1)
Early Warning Systems	362	(1)
Accreditation	363	(1)
External Mechanisms of Accountability	364	(1)
The Political Process	364	(1)
The Courts	365	(6)
The Supreme Court and the Police	365	(1)
The Impact of Supreme Court Decisions	366	(2)
Civil Suits against the Police	368	(1)
``Pattern or Practice'' Suits	369	(1)
Injunctions	370	(1)
Criminal Prosecution	370	(1)
Summary	371	(1)
Citizen Oversight of the Police	371	(5)
Forms of Citizen Oversight	372	(1)
The Roles of Citizen Oversight	373	(1)
Citizen Review: Pro and Con	374	(1)
Blue-Ribbon Commissions	374	(1)
The News Media	375	(1)
Public Interest Groups	375	(1)
A Mixed Approach to Police Accountability	376	(1)
Summary	376	(1)
Case Study: Miami-Dade Police Department, Early Identification System (Excerpt)	377	(9)
PART FOUR OFFICERS AND ORGANIZATIONS
Police Officers I: Entering Police Work	386	(36)
Introduction	387	(1)
The Changing American Police Officer	387	(1)
Aspects of the Personnel Process	388	(2)
A Career Perspective	388	(1)
Beyond Stereotypes of Cops	388	(1)
The Personnel Process: A Shared Responsibility	389	(1)
Recruitment	390	(5)
Minimum Qualifications	390	(4)
Recruitment Effort	394	(1)
Choosing Law Enforcement as a Career	395	(2)
Motivations	395	(1)
People Who Do Not Apply	396	(1)
Selection	397	(2)
Selection Tests	397	(1)
Oral Interviews	398	(1)
Background Investigations	399	(1)
Predicting Who Will Be Good Officers	399	(2)
Equal Employment Opportunity	401	(5)
The Law of Equal Employment Opportunity	401	(1)
Job-Related Qualifications	401	(1)
Employment of Racial and Ethnic Minorities	402	(2)
Hispanic or Latino Officers	404	(1)
Women in Policing	404	(1)
Barriers to Women in Policing	405	(1)
Gay and Lesbian Officers	405	(1)
Employment Discrimination Litigation	406	(1)
The Affirmative Action Controversy	406	(3)
The Law of Affirmative Action	406	(1)
The Issue of Quotas	407	(2)
Training	409	(4)
Police Academy Training	410	(1)
Field Training	411	(1)
State Training and Certification	411	(1)
Shortcomings of Current Police Training	411	(2)
The Probationary Period	413	(1)
Summary	414	(1)
Case Study: Excerpt from the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society	414	(8)
Police Officers II: On the Job	422	(40)
Introduction	423	(1)
Reality Shock: Entering Police Work	424	(2)
Encountering Citizens	424	(1)
Encountering the Justice System	425	(1)
Encountering the Department	425	(1)
The Seniority System	426	(1)
Police Officer Attitudes and Behavior	426	(5)
The Concept of a Police Subculture	427	(3)
Criticisms of the Police Subculture Concept	430	(1)
The Changing Rank and File	431	(7)
Women Police Officers	431	(1)
Female Officers and the Use of Force	432	(1)
African American Officers	433	(1)
Hispanic/Latino Officers	434	(1)
Race, Ethnicity, and Performance	434	(1)
Gay and Lesbian Officers	435	(1)
The Intersection of Race, Gender, and Sexual Identity	435	(1)
Education	436	(1)
Cohort Effects	436	(1)
Attitudes toward Community Policing	437	(1)
Summary	438	(1)
The Relationship Between Attitudes and Behavior	438	(1)
Styles of Police Work	439	(1)
Career Development	440	(3)
Promotion	440	(1)
Salaries and Benefits	441	(1)
Assignment to Special Units	441	(1)
Lateral Entry	442	(1)
Performance Evaluation	443	(5)
Traditional Performance Evaluation Systems	443	(1)
Problems with Performance Evaluations	443	(5)
Job Satisfaction and Job Stress	448	(2)
Sources of Stress	448	(1)
Coping with Stress	449	(1)
The Rights of Police Officers	450	(1)
Officers' Rights versus Accountability	450	(1)
Outside Employment	451	(1)
Turnover: Leaving Police Work	451	(1)
Summary	452	(1)
Case Study: National Center for Women and Policing (Excerpt)	452	(10)
Police Organizations	462
Introduction	463
The Quasi-Military Style of Police Organizations	464
Criticisms of the Quasi-Military Style	464
Police Departments as Organizations	466
The Dominant Style of American Police Organizations	466
Police Organizations as Bureaucracies	466
The Problems with Bureaucracy	467
Problems with Police Organizations	469
The Positive Contributions of Bureaucracy in Policing	470
Informal Aspects of Police Organizations	470
Bureaucracy and Police Professionalism	471
Changing Police Organizations	471
Community Policing	472
Total Quality Management	472
Task Forces	473
Creating Learning Organizations	474
Compstat	475
Civil Service	476
Police Unions	477
Aspects of Police Unions	477
Collective Bargaining	477
Grievance Procedures	478
Unions and Shared Governance	478
Impasse Settlement and Strikes	478
Impact of Police Unions	481
Police Organizations and Their Environment	481
Contingency Theory	481
Institutional Theory	482
Resource Dependency Theory	482
Summary	483
Case Study: Union Influence in the Lowell, Massachusetts, Police Department	483