Power Systems in Emergencies From Contingency Planning to Crisis Management

by Knight, U. G.

• ISBN13: 9780471490166
• ISBN10: 0471490164
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-07-16
• Publisher: WILEY

Summary

As modern society has become increasingly reliant on electricity, disturbances to the power supply system have become a worldwide industry concern. The range and impact of disturbances are addressed in this comprehensive account of the planning, operation and control of power systems during emergencies. * The impact of a full range of power system emergency situations from adverse weather conditions and natural disasters to equipment failures, human errors and industrial action. * Detailed coverage of the procedures, organisation, training and equipment provided by utilities in order to contain the incidence and impact of disturbances, both sudden and predicted. * Survey of the measures adopted to restore electricity supply from various levels of failure. * The development of abnormal operating conditions: descriptions of actual power system failures and their impacts. * Discussion of the costs and benefits associated with emergency control. * Emergency control in the future - the impact of industry restructuring and deregulation and the new challenges facing utilities and their staff. Offering a clear and concise treatment of the cause, effect and prevention of power system emergencies, this timely book will appeal to utility managers, power engineers, consultants and practitioners involved in, and reliant upon, the electricity supply industry.

Author Biography

U. G. Knight is the author of Power Systems in Emergencies: From Contingency Planning to Crisis Management, published by Wiley.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Introduction and Contents	1	(6)
Review of Contents	1	(5)
General Approach of the Book	6	(1)
Disturbances in Power Systems and their Effects	7	(28)
Sudden Disturbance	7	(3)
Weather	7	(1)
Environment	8	(1)
Balance between Demand and Generation	9	(1)
Plant Failure	9	(1)
Human Error	10	(1)
Predictable Disturbances	10	(3)
Shortage of Plant Capacity	11	(1)
Shortage of Fuel	11	(1)
Shortage of `Ancillary' Supplies	12	(1)
Shortage of Operating Staff	12	(1)
Shortage of Control Staff	12	(1)
Forms of System Failure	13	(13)
Thermal Overloads	14	(1)
Switchgear Ratings, Excessive System Fault Levels	14	(1)
Voltage Outside Limits	15	(4)
Frequency Outside Limits	19	(1)
Steady State, Transient and Dynamic Stability	20	(1)
Voltage Instability	21	(5)
Analysis Techniques	26	(7)
Steady State Flows and Voltages	26	(2)
Fault Levels	28	(1)
Transient Stability	28	(4)
Dynamic Stability	32	(1)
Medium and Long-term Stability	33	(1)
Trends in the Development of Analytical Techniques	33	(2)
References	34	(1)
Further Reading	34	(1)
Some General Aspects of Emergency Control	35	(18)
Definitions and Concepts used in Emergency Control	35	(4)
Definitions	35	(1)
System States	36	(1)
Objectives	37	(1)
System States, Contingencies and Types of Control	37	(2)
Some Standard Terminology	39	(1)
The Effects of Various Types of Fault or Disturbance on System Performance	40	(4)
Sudden Deficit of Generation or Equivalent	40	(2)
Sudden Deficit of Demand or Equivalent	42	(2)
Sudden Loss of Transmission (Not Resulting in an Immediate System Split)	44	(1)
Sudden Loss of Transmission (Resulting in a System Split)	44	(1)
Typical Pattern of the Development of a Sudden Disturbance	44	(2)
Conceptual Forms of Emergency Control	46	(4)
Effect of System Structure on the Need for and Implementation of Emergency Control	50	(1)
Effect of System Structure on the Form of Emergency Control	51	(1)
Design Criteria for Emergency Control Facilities	51	(2)
References	52	(1)
The Power System and its Operational and Control Infrastructure	53	(64)
Structure	53	(4)
A Theory on the Evolution of Network Voltages	57	(1)
The Functions of Interconnection	57	(2)
Exchanges Between Neighbours	58	(1)
The Alternatives for Main Transmission	59	(4)
The Roles of Direct Current Interconnection and Transmission	62	(1)
Security and Quality of Supply in Planning and Operation	63	(14)
Standards of Security in Planning	64	(3)
Standards of Security in Operation	67	(5)
Standards of Quality	72	(5)
Timescales in System Operation and Control	77	(16)
Operational Planning	78	(5)
Extended Real-Time Analysis	83	(1)
Real-Time Operation	84	(5)
Facilities	89	(1)
Post-Event Tasks	90	(2)
Operator Training	92	(1)
Models Used in Post-Event Tasks	93	(1)
SCADA	93	(14)
Questions on Functions and Structure	95	(3)
Questions on Performance Criteria	98	(1)
Information Required at Control Centres	99	(1)
Information Sent Out from Control Centres	99	(3)
The Human-Computer Interface	102	(2)
Availability Requirements for SCADA Systems and their Structure	104	(3)
Energy Management Systems	107	(1)
Communications and Telemetry	108	(3)
Telecommand	111	(1)
Distributed Generation	111	(1)
Flexible a.c. Transmission Systems (FACTS)	111	(6)
Factors Preventing Full Thermal Loading of Circuits in an a.c. Network	112	(1)
Some FACTS Devices	113	(2)
References	115	(1)
Further Reading	116	(1)
Measures to Minimize the Impact of Disturbances	117	(58)
Factors in Onset, Severity and Propagation of a Disturbance	118	(1)
Measures in the Planning Timescale to Minimize the Risk of a Disturbance	119	(11)
The Basic Formulation	119	(3)
Generation Provisions in the System Plan	122	(2)
Measures for Demand Adjustment in the System Plan	124	(6)
Measures in the Operational Timescale to Minimize the Risk and Impact of a Disturbance	130	(7)
Under-frequency Load Disconnection	130	(3)
Other Frequency Control Mechanisms	133	(1)
Memoranda and Procedures	133	(4)
Special Protection Schemes	137	(21)
The Elements of a Special Protection Scheme	139	(2)
The Performance of SPS	141	(4)
Prevention of Overload and Instability	145	(2)
System Application of SPS	147	(11)
Reduction in the Spread of Disturbances	158	(2)
Rapid Clearance of Faults	159	(1)
Sustainable Conditions Following the Initial Fault Clearance	159	(1)
Restoration of Normal Conditions	160	(1)
Measures to Minimize the Impact of Predictable Disturbances	160	(7)
Natural Phenomena	161	(1)
Incipient Breakdown of Plant	161	(2)
Labour Problems	163	(4)
An Approach to Managing Resources	167	(2)
The Control Centre	169	(6)
SCADA	169	(2)
Main, Standby and Backup SCADA/EMS Systems	171	(1)
Communications	171	(1)
References	172	(1)
Further Reading	173	(2)
The Natural Environment-Some Disturbances Reviewed	175	(38)
Introduction	175	(1)
Useful Sources of Information	175	(2)
Government and Similarly Sponsored Inquiries	176	(1)
Utility Inquiries	176	(1)
Annual Reports	176	(1)
International and National Surveys	176	(1)
The Internet	177	(1)
Extreme Environmental Conditions	177	(12)
Hurricanes	178	(1)
Tornadoes	179	(1)
Gales	180	(1)
Hail, Snow and Icestorms	180	(1)
Earthquakes and Tsunamis	181	(1)
Vegetation Brushfires	182	(1)
Thunderstorms, Lightning and Overvoltages	183	(4)
Floods	187	(1)
Geomagnetic Storms	188	(1)
Disaster Control	188	(1)
Noteworthy Disturbances	189	(9)
The Questionnaire	189	(1)
An Example (a Complex Fault on a Simple System)	190	(1)
Tabular Information on Disturbances	191	(1)
Descriptions of Disturbances	191	(7)
Incidents	198	(13)
UK--August 1981	198	(3)
UK--1986	201	(1)
UK--October 1987	201	(2)
France--1999	203	(1)
Scandinavia--1997	204	(1)
Malaysia--1996	204	(1)
New Zealand--late January--early March 1998	204	(3)
Australia--1977	207	(1)
Australia--1994	208	(1)
USA--July 1986	208	(1)
USA--1989	209	(1)
USA--September 1989	209	(1)
USA--August 1996	209	(1)
Canada--January 1998	210	(1)
Canada and USA--January 1998	210	(1)
USA--January 1998	211	(1)
USA--January 1998	211	(1)
USA--March 1998	211	(1)
Conclusion	211	(2)
References	212	(1)
Restoration	213	(18)
Introduction	213	(1)
The Range of Disturbed System Conditions	213	(2)
Some General Issues in Restoration	215	(1)
Recovery from an Abnormal Operating Situation, Local Islanding or Localized Loss of Demand	215	(2)
Checking System Security during the Restoration Process	216	(1)
The `Black Start' Situation	217	(4)
The Generation Demand Balance	218	(1)
The System Reactive Balance	219	(1)
Status of the Control and Protection Facilities	219	(2)
Strategies for Restoration of the Whole System	221	(2)
Preparation of the System	222	(1)
Rebuilding the Transmission System	222	(1)
Aids in the Restoration Process	223	(1)
Operational Planning Studies	223	(1)
Expert Systems	224	(1)
Automatic Systems Switching	224	(1)
Problems Found in Restoration	224	(2)
Analysis, Simulation and Modelling in Blackstart	226	(2)
In-depth Analysis	226	(1)
Routine but Complex Analysis	227	(1)
Operation Studies in the Event	228	(1)
Restoration from a Foreseen Disturbance	228	(3)
Further Reading	228	(3)
Training and Simulators for Emergency Control	231	(20)
Introduction	231	(1)
Training in General	231	(1)
The Need for Operator Training	232	(1)
The Content of Training	233	(1)
Forms of Training	234	(2)
Father-Son Tuition	234	(1)
Group Discussion	234	(1)
Training Courses	234	(1)
Organization of Training Courses	235	(1)
Assistance in Commissioning	235	(1)
Self-tuition	235	(1)
Training Simulators	236	(10)
Outline Specification for a Training Simulator	236	(1)
Alternative Forms of Training Simulators	237	(2)
Some Commercial Training Simulators	239	(5)
The New Generation of Dispatch Training Simulators	244	(2)
The Use of Dispatch Training Simulators in Practice	246	(1)
Conclusion	247	(4)
References	247	(1)
Further Reading	248	(3)
Plant Characteristics and Control Facilities for Emergency Control, and Benefits to be Obtained	251	(14)
Introduction	251	(1)
The Characteristics and Facilities Required for Emergency Control	252	(1)
Generating Plant	252	(1)
Transmission Plant	252	(1)
Overhead Lines	253	(1)
Cables	253	(1)
The System and Demand	253	(3)
Configuration	254	(1)
Demand	255	(1)
Adjustment of Active Power Flow	255	(1)
Adjustment of Reactive Power Infeeds	255	(1)
System Control Costs for Emergencies	256	(2)
Indirect Costs	258	(1)
The Benefits of Emergency Control	258	(3)
Qualitative Aspects	258	(3)
Quantitative Aspects	261	(1)
Is Emergency Control Worthwhile?	262	(3)
References	263	(1)
Further Reading	263	(2)
Systems and Emergency Control in the Future	265	(48)
Introduction	265	(1)
Changes in Organization	266	(7)
Restructuring, Unbundling and Emergency Control	273	(21)
Regulatory Aspects	275	(19)
Facilities for Emergency Control in the Future	294	(13)
Superconductivity	307	(1)
Contingency Planning and Crisis Management	308	(5)
References	309	(2)
Additional Reading	311	(2)
Appendix 1 Some Major Interconnected Systems Around the World: Existing and Possible Developments	313	(10)
Western Europe	313	(1)
England, Wales and Scotland (as at the mid-late 1990s)	314	(2)
Scandinavia	316	(1)
Part Central and Eastern Europe	316	(1)
A Baltic Ring	317	(1)
Central Europe	318	(1)
North America	318	(1)
India	319	(1)
Middle East and North Africa	319	(1)
Peoples' Republic of China	319	(1)
Africa	319	(2)
South America	321	(1)
Central American Power Grid	321	(1)
Information Sources	321	(2)
Appendix 2 Glossary of Useful Terms	323	(30)
References	350	(3)
Appendix 3 Some Useful Mathematical and Modelling Techniques in Power Systems Studies	353	(18)
A3.1 Linear Programming	353	(2)
A3.2 Some Special Forms and Extensions of Linear Programming	355	(3)
A3.2.1 Transportation	355	(2)
A3.2.2 Integer Linear Programming	357	(1)
A3.2.3 Quadratic Programming	358	(1)
A3.3 Non-linear Programming	358	(3)
A3.3.1 The Indirect Approach Using Lagrangian and Kuhn--Tucker Multipliers	358	(2)
A3.3.2 The Direct Approach Using Gradient Methods	360	(1)
A3.4 Dynamic Programming	361	(2)
A3.5 Operating Costs	363	(3)
A3.6 Power System Analysis	366	(2)
A3.6.1 Power Flows and Voltages	366	(2)
A3.7 The d.c. Approximation	368	(3)
References	369	(1)
Further Reading	369	(2)
Index	371