1 An Introduction to the Human Body 1

1.1 Anatomy Defined 2

1.2 Levels of Body Organization and Body Systems 3

1.3 Life Processes 8

1.4 Basic Anatomical Terminology 9

Anatomical Position 9

Regional Names 9

Planes and Sections 9

1.5 Body Cavities 14

Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes 15

1.6 Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants 18

1.7 The Human Body and Disease 20

1.8 Aging 20

1.9 Medical Imaging 21

1.10 Measuring the Human Body 24

Chapter Review 25 / Critical Thinking Questions 26 / Answers to Figure Questions 26

2 Cells 27

2.1 A Generalized Cell 28

2.2 The Plasma Membrane 29

Structure of the Membrane 29

Functions of Membrane Proteins 30

Membrane Permeability 30

Transport Across the Plasma Membrane 30

Kinetic Energy Transport 31 / Transport by Transporter Proteins 31 / Transport in Vesicles 32

2.3 Cytoplasm 35

Cytosol 35

Organelles 35

Centrosome 36 / Cilia and Flagella 36 / Ribosomes 37 / Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) 37 / Golgi Complex 39 / Lysosomes 41 / Peroxisomes 42 / Proteasomes 43 / Mitochondria 43

2.4 Nucleus 44

2.5 Cell Division 47

Somatic Cell Division 48

Interphase 48 / Mitotic Phase 48

Control of Cell Destiny 50

Reproductive Cell Division 51

Meiosis 51

2.6 Cellular Diversity 54

2.7 Aging and Cells 56

Key Medical Terms Associated with Cells 57 / Chapter Review 58 / Critical Thinking Questions 60 / Answers to Figure Questions 60

3 Tissues 61

3.1 Types of Tissues 62

3.2 Cell Junctions 63

Tight Junctions 63

Adhering Junctions 64

Desmosomes 64

Hemidesmosomes 64

Gap Junctions 64

3.3 Comparison Between Epithelial and Connective Tissues 64

3.4 Epithelial Tissue 65

Classification of Surface Epithelium 66

Surface Epithelium 67

Glandular Epithelium 74

Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands 75 / Functional Classification of Exocrine Glands 76

3.5 Connective Tissue 77

General Features of Connective Tissue 77

Connective Tissue Cells 78

Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix 78

Ground Substance 78 / Fibers 79

Classification of Connective Tissue 80

Embryonic Connective Tissue 80

Mature Connective Tissue 82

Connective Tissue Proper 82 / Supporting Connective Tissue 82 / Liquid Connective Tissue 89

3.6 Membranes 90

Epithelial Membranes 90

Mucous Membranes 90 / Serous Membranes 90 / Cutaneous Membrane 90

Synovial Membranes 90

3.7 Muscular Tissue 92

3.8 Nervous Tissue 92

3.9 Aging and Tissues 94

Key Medical Terms Associated with Tissues 95 / Chapter Review 95 / Critical Thinking Questions 97 / Answers to Figure Questions 97

4 Development 98

4.1 Principles of Development 99

4.2 Embryonic Period 100

First Week of Development 100

Fertilization 100 / Cleavage of the Zygote 101 / Blastocyst Formation 101 / Implantation 102

Second Week of Development 104

Development of the Trophoblast 104 / Development of the Bilaminar Embryonic Disc 105 / Development of the Amnion 106 / Development of the Umbilical Vesicle 106 / Development of Sinusoids 107 / Development of the Extraembryonic Coelom 107 / Development of the Chorion 107

Third Week of Development 107

Gastrulation 107 / Neurulation 110 / Development of Somites 110 / Development of the Intraembryonic Coelom 110 / Development of the Cardiovascular System 110 / Development of the Chorionic Villi and Placenta 112

Fourth Week of Development 114

Fifth Through Eighth Weeks of Development 116

4.3 Fetal Period 117

4.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy 120

4.5 Labor 120

Key Medical Terms Associated with Development 122 / Chapter Review 123 / Critical Thinking Questions 124 / Answers to Figure Questions 124

5 The Integumentary System 125

5.1 Structure of the Skin 126

Epidermis 126

Stratum Basale 126 / Stratum Spinosum 129 / Stratum Granulosum 130 / Stratum Lucidum 130 / Stratum Corneum 130 / Cornification and Growth of the Epidermis 130

Dermis 131

Blood Supply of the Integumentary System 132

The Structural Basis of Skin Color 133 / Tattooing and Body Piercing 134

Subcutaneous Tissue 134

5.2 Accessory Structures of the Skin 134

Hair 135

Anatomy of a Hair 136 / Hair Growth 138 / Types of Hairs 138 / Hair Color 138

Skin Glands 139

Sebaceous Glands 139 / Sudoriferous Glands 140 / Ceruminous Glands 141

Nails 141

5.3 Types of Skin 143

5.4 Functions of the Skin 143

5.5 Development of the Integumentary System 146

5.6 Aging and the Integumentary System 146

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Integumentary System 148 / Chapter Review 149 / Critical Thinking Questions 150 / Answers to Figure Questions 151

6 Bone Tissue 152

6.1 Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System 153

6.2 Types of Bones 153

6.3 Anatomy of a Bone 154

6.4 Bone Surface Markings 156

6.5 Histology of Bone Tissue 156

Compact Bone Tissue 158

Spongy Bone Tissue 160

6.6 Blood and Nerve Supply of Bone 162

6.7 Bone Formation 163

Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus 163

Intramembranous Ossification 163

Endochondral Ossification 163

Bone Growth During Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence 166

Growth in Length 166 / Growth in Thickness 167

Remodeling of Bone 167

6.8 Fractures 170

6.9 Exercise and Bone Tissue 173

6.10 Aging and Bone Tissue 173

6.11 Factors Affecting Bone Growth 173

Key Medical Terms Associated with Bone Tissue 175 / Chapter Review 175 / Critical Thinking Questions 176 / Answers to Figure Questions 177

7 The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton 178

7.1 Divisions of the Skeletal System 179

7.2 Skull or Cranium 181

General Features and Functions 181

Nasal Septum 200

Orbits 200

Foramina and Canals 202

Unique Features of the Skull 203

Sutures 203 / Paranasal Sinuses 203 / Fontanels 204

Cranial Fossae 206

Age- related Changes in the Skull 206

Sexual Differences in the Skull 207

7.3 Hyoid Bone 209

7.4 Vertebral Column 209

Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column 210

Intervertebral Discs 212

Parts of a Typical Vertebra 212

Vertebral Body 212 / Vertebral Arch 212 / Processes 214

Regions of the Vertebral Column 214

Age- related Changes in the Vertebral Column 214

7.5 Thorax 223

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Axial Skeleton 227 / Chapter Review 228 / Critical Thinking Questions 229 / Answers to Figure Questions 229

8 The Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton 230

8.1 Skeleton of the Upper Limb 231

8.2 Skeleton of the Lower Limb 244

8.3 Greater and Lesser Pelves 250

8.4 Comparison of Female and Male Pelves 252

8.5 Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles 252

8.6 Development of the Skeletal System 262

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Appendicular Skeleton 265 / Chapter Review 265 / Critical Thinking Questions 266 / Answers to Figure Questions 266

9 Joints 267

9.1 Joint Classifications 268

Ligaments 268

9.2 Fibrous Joints 268

Fibrous Joints 269

Sutures 269

Syndesmoses 270

9.3 Cartilaginous Joints 270

Synchondroses 270

Symphyses 270

9.4 Synovial Joints 271

Structure of Synovial Joints 271

Articular Capsule 271 / Synovial Fluid 272 / Accessory Ligaments, Articular Discs, and Labra 272 / Nerve and Blood Supply 274

Bursae and Tendon Sheaths 274

9.5 Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 274

Gliding 275

Angular Movements 275

Flexion, Extension, and Lateral Flexion 275 / Abduction, Adduction, and Circumduction 275

Rotation 276

Special Movements 278

9.6 Types of Synovial Joints 280

Plane Joints 280

Hinge Joints 280

Pivot Joints 280

Ellipsoid Joints 282

Saddle Joints 282

Ball-and-Socket Joints 282

9.7 Factors Affecting Contact and Range of Motion at Synovial Joints 283

9.8 Selected Joints of the Body 284

9.9 Aging and Joints 302

Key Medical Terms Associated with Joints 303 / Chapter Review 304 / Critical Thinking Questions 305 / Answers to Figure Questions 305

10 Muscular Tissue 306

10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 307

Types of Muscular Tissue 307

Functions of Muscular Tissue 307

Properties of Muscular Tissue 307

10.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Structure 308

Gross Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle 308

Connective Tissue Coverings 310

Nerve and Blood Supply 310

Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber 310

Sarcolemma, T Tubules, and Sarcoplasm 311 / Myofibrils and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum 311 / Filaments and the Sarcomere 311

Muscle Proteins 313

10.3 Skeletal Muscle Tissue Function 317

Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 317

Sliding Filament Mechanism 317 / The Neuromuscular Synapse (Junction) 317 / The Contraction Cycle 320 / Excitation–Contraction Coupling 322

Muscle Tone 322

Isotonic and Isometric Contractions 325

10.4 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 325

Slow Oxidative Fibers 325

Fast Oxidative-Glycolytic Fibers 325

Fast Glycolytic Fibers 326

10.5 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 327

Effective Stretching 327

Strength Training 328

10.6 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 328

10.7 Smooth Muscle Tissue 330

10.8 Development of Muscles 332

10.9 Aging and Muscular Tissue 334

Key Medical Terms Associated with Muscular Tissue 334 / Chapter Review 334 / Critical Thinking Questions 336 / Answers to Figure Questions 336

11 The Muscular System 337

11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements 338

Muscle Attachment Sites 338

Lever Systems 338

Effects of Muscle Fascicle Arrangement 340

Muscle Actions 340

Coordination Among Muscles 341

Structure and Function of Muscle Groups 342

11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 343

11.3 Principal Skeletal Muscles 343

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Muscular System 439 / Chapter Review 440 / Critical Thinking Questions 441 / Answers to Figure Questions 441

12 The Cardiovascular System: Blood 443

12.1 Functions of Blood 444

12.2 Physical Characteristics of Blood 444

12.3 Components of Blood 445

Blood Plasma 446

Formed Elements 446

12.4 Formation of Blood Cells 448

12.5 Red Blood Cells 450

RBC Anatomy 450

RBC Functions 450

RBC Life Cycle 452

Erythropoiesis: Production of RBCs 453

Blood Group Systems 453

12.6 White Blood Cells 454

WBC Anatomy and Types 454

Granular Leukocytes 454 / Agranular Leukocytes 455

WBC Functions 455

12.7 Platelets 457

12.8 Stem Cell Transplants from Bone Marrow and Cord Blood 460

Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood 460 / Chapter Review 461 / Critical Thinking Questions 462 / Answers to Figure Questions 462

13 The Cardiovascular System: The Heart 463

13.1 Location and Surface Projection of the Heart 464

13.2 Structure and Function of the Heart 466

Pericardium 466

Layers of the Heart Wall 468

Chambers of the Heart 469

Right Atrium 469 / Right Ventricle 471 / Left Atrium 471 / Left Ventricle 473

Myocardial Thickness and Function 473

Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart 473

Heart Valves 473

Atrioventricular Valves 474 / Semilunar Valves 476

13.3 Circulation of Blood 477

Systemic and Pulmonary Circulations 477

Coronary Circulation 477

Coronary Arteries 477 / Coronary Veins 478

13.4 Cardiac Conduction System and Innervation 480

Cardiac Conduction System 481

Cardiac Nerves 483

13.5 Cardiac Cycle (Heartbeat) 483

13.6 Heart Sounds 484

13.7 Exercise and the Heart 485

13.8 Development of the Heart 489

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Heart 491 / Chapter Review 492 / Critical Thinking Questions 493 / Answers to Figure Questions 493

14 The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels 494

14.1 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 495

Basic Structure of a Blood Vessel 495

Tunica Intima 495 / Tunica Media 497 / Tunica Externa 497

Arteries 497

Elastic Arteries 497 / Muscular Arteries 497

Anastomoses 498

Arterioles 498

Capillaries 499

Venules 500

Veins 500

Blood Distribution 503

14.2 Circulatory Routes—Systemic Circulation 504

14.3 Circulatory Routes—Hepatic Portal Circulation 548

14.4 Circulatory Routes—Pulmonary Circulation 549

14.5 Circulatory Routes—Fetal Circulation 550

14.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Blood 554

14.7 Aging and the Cardiovascular System 554

Key Medical Terms Associated with Blood vessels 556 / Chapter Review 557 / Critical Thinking Questions 558 / Answers to Figure Questions 558

15 The Lymphoid (Lymphatic) System and Immunity 559

15.1 The Concept of Immunity 560

15.2 Lymphoid (Lymphatic) System Structure and Functions 560

Structure 560

Functions 560

15.3 Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation 563

Lymphatic Capillaries 563

Lymphatic Trunks and Ducts 564

Formation and Flow of Lymph Plasma 565

15.4 Lymphoid Organs and Tissues 566

Thymus 567

Lymph Nodes 568

Spleen 570

Lymphoid Nodules 571

15.5 Principal Groups of Lymph Nodes 573

15.6 Development of Lymphoid Tissues 584

15.7 Aging and the Lymphoid System 584

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Lymphoid System and Immunity 586 / Chapter Review 587 / Critical Thinking Questions 588 / Answers to Figure Questions 588

16 Nervous Tissue 589

16.1 Overview of the Nervous System 590

Structures of the Nervous System 590

Organization of the Nervous System 590

Anatomical Organization 590 / Functional Organization 591

16.2 Histology and Functions of Neurons 592

Neurons 592

Parts of a Neuron 593 / Cell Body 593 / Nerve Fibers 594

Synapses 595

Neuromuscular Synapse (Junction) 595 / Synapses Between Neurons 595 / Neurotransmitters 596 / Structural Diversity in Neurons 597

16.3 Histology and Function of Neuroglia 598

Neuroglia of the CNS 598

Neuroglia of the PNS 600

Myelination 600

Gray and White Matter 602

16.4 Neural Circuits 603

16.5 Regeneration and Neurogenesis 604

Key Medical Terms Associated with Nervous Tissue 605 / Chapter Review 605 / Critical Thinking Questions 606 / Answers to Figure Questions 607

17 The Spinal Cord and the Spinal Nerves 608

17.1 Spinal Cord Anatomy 609

Protective Structures 609

Vertebral Column 609 / Meninges 609

External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 611

Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 613

17.2 Spinal Nerves 615

Structure of a Single Nerve 617

Organization of Spinal Nerves 618

Branches of Spinal Nerves 620

Intercostal Nerves 620 / Plexuses 620

Dermatomes versus Cutaneous Fields 620

17.3 Spinal Cord Functions 633

Sensory and Motor Tracts 633

Reflexes and Reflex Arcs 634

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Spinal Cord and the Spinal Nerves 636 / Chapter Review 637 / Critical Thinking Questions 637 / Answers to Figure Questions 638

18 The Brain and the Cranial Nerves 639

18.1 Development and General Structure of the Brain 640

Brain Development 640

Major Parts of the Brain 641

18.2 Protection and Blood Supply 641

Protective Coverings of the Brain 643

Cerebrospinal Fluid 644

Formation of CSF in the Ventricles 644 / Functions of CSF 648 / Circulation of CSF 648

Brain Blood Flow and the Blood–Brain Barrier 648

18.3 The Brainstem and Reticular Formation 649

Medulla Oblongata 650

Pons 652

Midbrain 652

Reticular Formation 655

18.4 The Cerebellum 655

18.5 The Diencephalon 657

Thalamus 657

Hypothalamus 659

Epithalamus 660

Circumventricular Organs 660

18.6 The Cerebrum 661

Structure of the Cerebrum 661

Cerebral White Matter 662

Corpus Striatum 663

The Limbic System 665

18.7 Functional Organization of the Cerebral Cortex 667

Sensory Areas 668

Motor Areas 668

Association Areas 669

Hemispheric Lateralization 670

Memory 672

Brain Waves 672

18.8 Aging and the Nervous System 673

18.9 Cranial Nerves 673

Brain and the Cranial Nerves 690 / Chapter Review 691 / Critical Thinking Questions 693 / Answers to Figure Questions 693

19 The Autonomic Division of the Peripheral Nervous System 694

19.1 Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Division of the Peripheral Nervous Systems 695

Somatic Division of Peripheral Nervous System 695

Autonomic Division of Peripheral Nervous System 695

Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Motor Neurons 695

19.2 Anatomy of Autonomic Motor Pathway 697

Understanding Autonomic Motor Pathways 697

Migration of the Neural Crest Tissue 698

Shared Anatomical Components of an Autonomic Motor Pathway 699

Motor Neurons and Autonomic Ganglia 699 /Autonomic Plexuses 699

19.3 Structure of the Sympathetic Part 701

Sympathetic Preganglionic Neurons 701

Sympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons 705

Sympathetic Trunk Ganglia 705 / Prevertebral Ganglia 705

19.4 Structure of the Parasympathetic Part 706

Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neurons 706

Parasympathetic Ganglia and Postganglionic Neurons 708

19.5 ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors 709

Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors 709

Adrenergic Neurons and Receptors 709

19.6 Functions of the ANS 711

Sympathetic Responses 711

Parasympathetic Responses 711

19.7 Integration and Control of Autonomic Functions 714

Autonomic Reflexes 714

Autonomic Control by Higher Centers 714

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Autonomic Nervous Division 715 / Chapter Review 716 / Critical Thinking Questions 717 / Answers to Figure Questions 717

20 Somatic Senses and Motor Control 718

20.1 Overview of Sensations 719

Definition of Sensations 719

Characteristics of Sensations 719

Classification of Sensations 719

Types of Sensory Receptors 719

20.2 Somatic Sensations 721

Tactile Sensations 721

Touch 722 / Pressure 722 / Vibration 722 / Itch and Tickle 722 /

Thermal Sensations 722

Pain Sensations 722

Types of Pain 723 / Localization of Pain 723

Proprioceptive Sensations 724

Muscle Spindles 724 / Tendon Organs 726 / Joint Kinesthetic Receptors 726

20.3 Somatic Sensory Pathways 727

Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the Cerebral Cortex 727

Anterolateral (Spinothalamic) Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex 728

Mapping the Primary Somatosensory Area 729

Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum 730

20.4 Somatic Motor Pathways 731

Origin of Motor Pathways 732

Direct Motor Pathways 732

Indirect Motor Pathways 734

Roles of the Corpus Striatum in Movement 735

Roles of the Cerebellum in Movement 735

Role of the Brainstem in Movement 735

Vestibular Nuclei in the Medulla and Pons 735 / Reticular Formation in the Medulla, Pons, and Midbrain 735 / Superior Colliculus in the Midbrain 736

20.5 Integration of Sensory Input and Motor Output 737

Key Medical Terms Associated with Somatic Senses and Motor Control 737 / Chapter Review 738 / Critical Thinking Questions 739 / Answers to Figure Questions 739

21 Special Senses 740

21.1 Olfaction: Sense of Smell 741

Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors 741

The Olfactory Pathway 743

21.2 Gustation: Sense of Taste 743

Anatomy of Gustatory Receptors 744

The Gustatory Pathway 744

21.3 Vision 746

Accessory Structures of the Eye 746

Eyelids 746 / Eyelashes and Eyebrows 748 / The Lacrimal Apparatus 748 / Extraocular Muscles 748

Anatomy of the Eyeball 748

Fibrous Layer 748 / Vascular Layer 749 / Inner Layer (Retina) 750 / Lens 751 / Interior of the Eyeball 753

The Visual Pathway 755

Processing of Visual Input in the Retina 755 / Pathway in the Brain 756

21.4 Hearing and Equilibrium 757

Anatomy of the Ear 757

External Ear 757 / Middle Ear 759 / Internal Ear 760

Mechanism of Hearing 765

The Auditory Pathway 766

Mechanism of Equilibrium 767

Otolithic Organs: Utricle and Saccule 767 / Semicircular Ducts 769

Equilibrium Pathways 769

21.5 Development of the Eyes and Ears 773

Development of the Eyes 773

Development of the Ears 774

21.6 Aging and the Special Senses 775

Key Medical Terms Associated with Special Senses 776 / Chapter Review 776 / Critical Thinking Questions 777 / Answers to Figure Questions 778

22 The Endocrine System 779

22.1 Endocrine Glands Defined 780

22.2 Hormones 780

22.3 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 782

Anterior Pituitary 782

Posterior Pituitary 786

22.4 Pineal Gland and Thymus 788

22.5 Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands 788

22.6 Suprarenal (Adrenal) Glands 792

Suprarenal Cortex 792

Suprarenal Medulla 794

22.7 Pancreas 795

22.8 Ovaries and Testes 798

22.9 Other Endocrine Tissues 799

22.10 Development of the Endocrine System 800

22.11 Aging and the Endocrine System 801

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Endocrine System 802 / Chapter Review 802 / Critical Thinking Questions 804 / Answers to Figure Questions 804

23 The Respiratory System 805

23.1 Respiratory System Anatomy 806

23.2 Upper Respiratory System Anatomy 806

Nose 806

Pharynx 810

23.3 Lower Respiratory System Anatomy 811

Larynx 811

The Structures of Voice Production 813

Trachea 815

Bronchi 817

Lungs 822

Lobes, Fissures, and Lobules 823 / Alveolar Saccules and Pulmonary Alveoli 826 / Blood Supply to the Lungs 829

Patency of the Respiratory System 831

23.4 Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation (Breathing) 831

Inhalation 831

Exhalation 833

23.5 Regulation of Breathing 834

Role of the Respiratory Center 835

Medullary Respiratory Center 835 / Pontine Respiratory Group 835

Regulation of the Respiratory Center 836

Cortical Influences on Breathing 836 / Chemoreceptor Regulation of Breathing 836 / Role of Lung Inflation in Stimulation of Breathing 837

23.6 Exercise and the Respiratory System 837

23.7 Development of the Respiratory System 838

23.8 Aging and the Respiratory System 839

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Respiratory System 840 / Chapter Review 840 / Critical Thinking Questions 841 / Answers to Figure Questions 841

24 The Digestive System 843

24.1 Overview of the Digestive System 844

24.2 Layers of the Digestive Canal 845

Mucosa 845

Submucosa 846

Muscular Layer 847

Serosa 847

24.3 Peritoneum 847

24.4 Mouth 850

Salivary Glands 851

Tongue 853

Teeth 853

24.5 Pharynx 857

24.6 Esophagus 857

Histology of the Esophagus 857

Functions of the Esophagus 857

24.7 Stomach 860

Anatomy of the Stomach 860

Histology of the Stomach 862

Functions of the Stomach 862

24.8 Pancreas 865

Anatomy of the Pancreas 865

Histology of the Pancreas 867

Functions of the Pancreas 867

24.9 Liver and Gallbladder 867

Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder 867

Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder 869

Blood and Nerve Supply of the Liver and Gallbladder 871

Functions of the Liver and Gallbladder 872

24.10 Small Intestine 873

Anatomy of the Small Intestine 873

Histology of the Small Intestine 874

Functions of the Small Intestine 880

24.11 Large Intestine 883

Anatomy of the Large Intestine 883

Histology of the Large Intestine 883

Functions of the Large Intestine 886

24.12 Development of the Digestive System 888

24.13 Aging and the Digestive System 889

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Digestive System 890 / Chapter Review 891 / Critical Thinking Questions 892 / Answers to Figure Questions 893

25 The Urinary System 894

25.1 Overview of the Urinary System 895

25.2 Anatomy of the Kidneys 896

External Anatomy of the Kidneys 896

Internal Anatomy of the Kidneys 898

Blood and Nerve Supply of the Kidneys 898

25.3 The Nephron 901

Parts of a Nephron 901

Histology of the Nephron and Collecting Duct 904

Glomerular Capsule 904 / Renal Tubule and Collecting Duct 905

25.4 Functions of Nephrons 907

Glomerular Filtration 908

Tubular Reabsorption 909

Tubular Secretion 911

25.5 Urine Transportation, Storage, and Elimination 911

Ureters 911

Urinary Bladder 913

Urethra 915

25.6 Development of the Urinary System 918

25.7 Aging and the Urinary System 919

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Urinary System 919 / Chapter Review 920 / Critical Thinking Questions 921 / Answers to Figure Questions 921

26 The Genital (Reproductive) Systems 922

26.1 Male Genital (Reproductive) System 923

Scrotum 924

Testes 924

Sperm 929

Genital System Ducts in Males 930

Ducts of the Testis 930 / Epididymis 930 / Ductus Deferens 931 / Ejaculatory Ducts 932 / Urethra 932

Spermatic Cord 932

Accessory Genital Glands in Males 932

Seminal Glands 932 / Prostate 932 / Bulbourethral Glands 933

Semen 934

Penis 934

26.2 Female Genital (Reproductive) System 937

Ovaries 938

Histology of the Ovaries 938 / Oogenesis and Follicular Development 940

Uterine Tubes 943

Uterus 944

Vagina 950

Vulva 951

Perineum 953

Mammary Glands 953

26.3 Female Reproductive Cycle 957

Menstrual Phase 957

Events in the Ovaries 957 / Events in the Uterus 957

Preovulatory Phase 957

Events in the Ovaries 957 / Events in the Uterus 958

Ovulation 958

Postovulatory Phase 959

Events in the Ovaries 959 / Events in the Uterus 959

26.4 Birth Control Methods and Abortion 960

Birth Control Methods 960

Surgical Sterilization 960 / Non-incisional Sterilization 960 / Hormonal Methods 960 / Intrauterine Devices 961 / Spermicides 962 / Barrier Methods 962 / Periodic Abstinence 962

Abortion 962

26.5 Development of the Genital Systems 965

26.6 Aging and the Genital Systems 965

Key Medical Terms Associated with the Genital Systems 968 / Chapter Review 969 / Critical Thinking Questions 970 / Answers to Figure Questions 971

27 Surface Anatomy 972

27.1 Overview of Surface Anatomy 973

Surface Anatomy of the Head 973 / Surface Anatomy of the Neck 979 / Surface Anatomy of the Trunk 981 / Surface Anatomy of the Upper Limb 987 / Surface Anatomy of the Lower Limb 992

Chapter Review 997 / Critical Thinking Questions 997 / Answers to Figure Questions 998

Appendix A Measurements A-1

Appendix B Answers B-3

Glossary G-1

Index I-1