Principles of Radiographic Imaging An Art and a Science

by Carlton, Richard

• ISBN13: 9780766813007
• ISBN10: 0766813002
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-09-18
• Publisher: CENGAGE Delmar Learning

Summary

This book presents a comprehensive introduction to the principles and techniques of radiographic imaging. The physics principles that are the foundation of radiography are explained clearly, with numerous illustrations, examples and solved problems to aid comprehension. Chapters are organized into six units: Creating the Beam, Protecting Patients and Personnel, Creating the Image, Analyzing the Image, Comparing Exposure Systems, and Special Imaging Systems. Specialized imaging modalities, such as mammography, magnetic resonance imaging, and computed tomography and computed radiography, are explained in individual chapters.

Table of Contents

List of Tables	xi
Foreword	xv
Preface	xvi
Acknowledgments	xviii
UNIT I Creating the Beam	1	(140)
Basic Mathematics	3	(17)
Arithmetic	4	(4)
Algebra	8	(7)
Units of Measurement	15	(5)
Radiation Concepts	20	(18)
Matter And Energy	21	(2)
Atomic Theory	23	(7)
Types of Energy	30	(2)
Electromagnetic Spectrum	32	(2)
The Discovery of X-Rays	34	(1)
X-Ray Properties	35	(3)
Electricity	38	(19)
Electrostatics	39	(5)
Electrodynamics	44	(7)
Series And Parallel Circuits	51	(6)
Electromagnetism	57	(29)
Magnetism	58	(4)
Electromagnetism	62	(1)
Solenoids and Electromagnets	63	(10)
Controlling Electrical Current	73	(5)
Rectification	78	(8)
X-Ray Equipment	86	(24)
Types of X-Ray Equipment	87	(5)
Power For X-Ray Generation	92	(2)
A Basic X-Ray Circuit	94	(3)
Generators	97	(7)
Automatic Exposure Controls	104	(6)
The X-Ray Tube	110	(21)
The Cathode Assembly	111	(3)
The Anode Assembly	114	(7)
The Glass Envelope	121	(1)
Protective Housing	122	(1)
Off-Focus Radiation	123	(1)
Rating Charts and Cooling Curves	124	(2)
Recommendations For Extending Tube Life	126	(5)
X-Ray Production	131	(10)
Conditions	132	(1)
Target Interactions	132	(4)
Emission Spectrum	136	(5)
UNIT II Protecting Patients and Personnel	141	(82)
Radiation Protection Concepts and Equipment	143	(12)
The Basic of Radiation Protection Principles and Practice	144	(2)
Quantities and Units Relevant To Radiation Protection	146	(2)
Detection And Measurement of Ionizing Radiation	148	(7)
Radiation Protection Procedures for Patients and Personnel	155	(17)
Advisory Groups And Regulatory Agencies	156	(1)
Limiting Exposure To Ionizing Radiation	156	(2)
Protection of Personnel	158	(4)
Protection of the Patient	162	(2)
Radiation Exposure and Pregnancy	164	(8)
Filtration	172	(8)
Measurement	173	(1)
Types of Filtration	174	(2)
Effect On Output	176	(4)
The Prime Factors	180	(12)
The Prime Factors	181	(1)
Milliamperage-Second (mAs)	181	(2)
Kilovoltage (kVp)	183	(2)
Distance	185	(7)
X-Ray Interactions	192	(14)
X-Ray Interaction with Matter	193	(1)
Photoelectric Absorption	194	(2)
Coherent Scattering	196	(1)
Compton Scattering	197	(2)
Pair Production	199	(1)
Photodisintegration	200	(1)
Effect on Technical Factor Selection	201	(5)
Minimizing Patient Dose	206	(17)
Estimating Approximate Entrance Skin Exposure	207	(2)
Typical Entrance Skin Exposure	209	(1)
Reducing Patient Dose With Communication	210	(1)
Reducing Patient Dose With Positioning	210	(1)
Reducing Patient Dose With Technical Factors	211	(3)
Discussing Radiation Risk Versus Benefit With Patients	214	(9)
UNIT III Creating the Image	223	(134)
Vision and Perception	225	(12)
Image Perception	226	(4)
Controlling The Image In Space	230	(1)
Radiography As An Art Form	231	(6)
Beam Restriction	237	(11)
Controlling Scatter	238	(2)
Beam Restrictors	240	(3)
Ancillary Devices	243	(5)
The Patient As a Beam Emitter	248	(6)
Attenuation	249	(1)
The Human Body As An Attenuator	249	(2)
The Patient's Relationship to Image Quality	251	(3)
The Pathology Problem	254	(11)
Pathology and Radiation Absorption	255	(2)
Increased Attenuation (Additive) Conditions	257	(3)
Decreased Attenuation (Destructive) Conditions	260	(5)
The Grid	265	(14)
Purpose of the Grid	266	(1)
Grid Construction	267	(2)
Grid Patterns	269	(1)
Grid Types	270	(1)
Grid Uses	270	(1)
Grid Selection/Conversions	271	(1)
Grid Performance Evaluation	272	(1)
Grid Errors	273	(2)
Other Scatter Reduction Methods	275	(4)
Radiographic Film	279	(16)
Construction	280	(5)
Latent Image Formation	285	(1)
Types of Film	285	(3)
The Duplication Process	288	(1)
The Subtraction Process	288	(3)
Film Storage and Handling	291	(1)
Film Identification	292	(3)
Image Processing	295	(19)
Developing	296	(3)
Fixing	299	(1)
Archiving	300	(1)
Automatic Processing	300	(6)
Darkroom	306	(2)
Silver Recovery Systems	308	(6)
Sensitometry	314	(14)
Sensitometric Equipment	315	(3)
The D Log E Curve	318	(1)
Film Characteristics	319	(9)
Intensifying Screens	328	(14)
Construction	329	(1)
Phosphors	330	(2)
Characteristics	332	(4)
Cassettes and Holders	336	(1)
Care	337	(5)
Film/Screen Combinations	342	(15)
Emission Spectra	343	(1)
Characteristics	343	(2)
Selecting Film/Screen Combinations	345	(4)
Clinical Choices	349	(8)
UNIT IV Analyzing the Image	357	(98)
Establishing Imaging Standards	359	(6)
Professional Imaging Standards	359	(1)
The Analytical Process	360	(1)
Acceptance Limits	361	(4)
Density	365	(17)
Assessing Density	366	(1)
Effects on Image Appearance	367	(1)
Factors Affecting Density	367	(15)
Contrast	382	(19)
Assessing Contrast	383	(2)
Radiographic Contrast	385	(4)
Evaluating Contrast	389	(5)
Factors Affecting Contrast	394	(7)
Recorded Detail	401	(13)
Assessing Recorded Detail	402	(1)
Effects on Image Appearance	402	(1)
Factors Affecting Recorded Detail	403	(11)
Distortion	414	(15)
Assessing Distortion	415	(1)
Factors Affecting Size Distortion	415	(4)
Factors Affecting Shape Distortion	419	(6)
Effect on Image Appearance	425	(4)
The Art of Film Critique	429	(9)
Implementing Imaging Standards	430	(1)
Identifying An Imaging Problem	430	(1)
An Effective Film Critique Method	431	(3)
Applying The Film Critique Method	434	(4)
Quality Management	438	(17)
Quality Assurance and Quality Control	439	(1)
Purchasing Equipment	440	(1)
Monitoring Equipment Performance	441	(6)
Ancillary Equipment	447	(1)
Repeat Film Studies	447	(2)
Troubleshooting	449	(6)
UNIT V Comparing Exposure Systems	455	(64)
Developing Exposure Charts	457	(9)
System Selection	458	(3)
Anatomically Programmed Radiography	461	(1)
Establishing A Technique Chart	461	(5)
Fixed Kilovoltage Systems	466	(9)
Principles of Fixed Kilovoltage Exposure Systems	467	(1)
Establishing A Fixed Kilovoltage Peak Technique Chart	468	(7)
Variable Kilovoltage Systems	475	(20)
Principles of a Variable Kilovoltage Peak Exposure System	476	(3)
Establishing a Stepped Variable kVp System	479	(3)
The Mayo Clinic Variable kVp System	482	(3)
Establishing a Mayo Clinic Variable kVp Chart	485	(10)
Other Exposure Systems	495	(7)
XVS Unit Step System	496	(1)
Bit System	497	(1)
Siemens Point System	497	(1)
Supertech™ Calculator	497	(1)
Proportional Anatomy Systems	498	(4)
Automatic Exposure Controls	502	(8)
Ionization Chambers	503	(2)
Positioning Skills	505	(5)
Exposure Conversion Problems	510	(9)
Standard Conversion Relationships and Tables	511	(2)
Solving Complex Exposure Problems	513	(6)
UNIT VI Special Imaging Systems	519	(183)
Mobile Radiography	521	(12)
Special Patient Considerations	522	(1)
Special Radiation Protection Considerations	523	(1)
Types of Equipment	524	(2)
Automatic Exposure Control	526	(1)
Special Technical Factor Selection Considerations	526	(7)
Fluoroscopy	533	(19)
Historical Development	534	(1)
Fluoroscopic Uses	534	(1)
Types of Equipment	535	(1)
Fluoroscopic X-Ray Tubes	536	(1)
Image Intensification Tubes	536	(4)
Fluoroscopic Generators	540	(1)
Image Quality	540	(1)
Viewing Systems	541	(3)
Recording The Fluoroscopic Image	544	(2)
Mobile Fluoroscopic Equipment	546	(1)
Radiation Protection During Fluoroscopy	546	(6)
Tomography	552	(13)
The Tomographic Principle	553	(1)
Tomographic Quality	554	(4)
Types of Motion	558	(2)
Tomographic Procedures	560	(5)
Technical Aspects of Mammography	565	(27)
Historical Development	566	(5)
Generator Characteristics	571	(3)
X-Ray Tube	574	(9)
Accessories	583	(4)
Resolution	587	(1)
Quality Control	588	(4)
Vascular Imaging Equipment	592	(22)
Generators	593	(1)
X-Ray Tubes	593	(7)
Angiographic Tables	600	(1)
Image Recording Devices	601	(8)
Contrast Medium Injection Devices	609	(2)
Quality Control	611	(3)
Digital Image Processing	614	(18)
The Computer	615	(3)
Image Processing	618	(3)
Digital Image Quality	621	(6)
Picture Archiving and Communication Systems (PACS)	627	(1)
Laser Film Printers	628	(4)
Digital Radiography	632	(18)
Introduction	633	(1)
Historical Development	633	(1)
Indirect Photostimulable Phosphor Imaging Plate Systems	633	(6)
Computed Radiography Image Quality	639	(4)
Image Acquisition Elements	643	(2)
Indirect Silicon Flat Panel Imaging Plate Systems	645	(1)
Direct Exposure Imaging Systems	646	(1)
Direct Selenium Flat Panel Imaging Plate Systems	646	(1)
DICOM Standard	646	(1)
Computed Radiography Artifacts	646	(4)
Computed Tomography	650	(24)
The Invention of Computed Tomography	651	(1)
Gentry	651	(6)
Table	657	(1)
X-Ray Tubes	657	(1)
Ditectors	658	(2)
Computer	660	(1)
Display Console	661	(1)
CT Numbers (Hounsfield Units)	662	(1)
Image Reconstruction	663	(1)
Image Quality	664	(1)
Scanning Procedures	665	(2)
Artifacts	667	(2)
Radiation Protection	669	(5)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging	674	(28)
The Physics of Magnetic Resonance	675	(5)
Production of the Magnetic Resonance Image	680	(6)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Equipment	686	(7)
Image Quality	693	(2)
Safety and Biological Hazards	695	(7)
Appendix A On a New Kind of Rays*	702	(5)
Appendix B Agfa's Troubleshooting the Radiographic System: Symptoms and Possible Causes*	707	(5)
Appendix C Du Pont Bit System	712	(5)
Appendix D Basic Exposure Table: Siemens Point System	717	(5)
Appendix E Answers To Case Studies	722	(2)
Appendix F Epigraph Sources and Credits	724	(2)
Index	726