Preface | p. xi |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Schools of Thought | p. 2 |
Use of Triangulation in Research Methodology | p. 5 |
Qualitative Strategies: Defining an Orientation | p. 8 |
From a Symbolic Interactionist Perspective | p. 9 |
Why Use Qualitative Methods? | p. 15 |
A Plan of Presentation | p. 16 |
References | p. 17 |
Designing Qualitative Research | p. 21 |
Theory and Concepts | p. 21 |
Ideas and Theory | p. 23 |
Reviewing the Literature | p. 27 |
Evaluating Web Sites | p. 29 |
The Two-Card Method | p. 32 |
Theory, Reality, and the Social World | p. 36 |
Framing Research Problems | p. 37 |
Operationalization and Conceptualization | p. 38 |
Designing Projects | p. 41 |
Concept Mapping | p. 42 |
Creating a Concept Map | p. 45 |
Setting and Population Appropriateness | p. 46 |
Sampling Strategies | p. 48 |
Data Collection and Organization | p. 52 |
Data Storage, Retrieval, and Analysis | p. 53 |
Dissemination | p. 55 |
Trying It Out | p. 56 |
References | p. 56 |
Ethical Issues | p. 60 |
Research Ethics in Historical Perspective | p. 61 |
From Guidelines to Law: Regulations on the Research Process | p. 67 |
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) | p. 68 |
IRBs and Their Duties | p. 69 |
Clarifying the Role of IRBs | p. 72 |
Active Versus Passive Consent | p. 74 |
Active Versus Passive Consent in Internet Research | p. 76 |
Membership Criteria for IRBs | p. 77 |
Ethical Codes | p. 78 |
Some Common Ethical Concerns in Behavioral Research | p. 78 |
Covert Versus Overt Researcher Roles | p. 80 |
New Areas for Ethical Concern: Cyberspace | p. 84 |
Protection for Children | p. 85 |
Debriefing the Subjects | p. 86 |
Informed Consent and Implied Consent | p. 87 |
Confidentiality and Anonymity | p. 90 |
Keeping Identifying Records | p. 91 |
Strategies for Safeguarding Confidentiality | p. 91 |
Securing the Data | p. 92 |
Objectivity and Careful Research Design | p. 93 |
Trying It Out | p. 95 |
References | p. 95 |
A Dramaturgical Look at Interviewing | p. 101 |
Dramaturgy and Interviewing | p. 102 |
Types of Interviews | p. 104 |
The Standardized Interview | p. 105 |
The Unstandardized Interview | p. 106 |
The Semistandardized Interview | p. 107 |
The Interview Schedule | p. 109 |
Schedule Development | p. 111 |
Question Order (Sequencing), Content, and Style | p. 112 |
Communicating Effectively | p. 116 |
A Few Common Problems in Question Formulation | p. 117 |
Affectively Worded Questions | p. 117 |
The Double-Barreled Question | p. 118 |
Complex Questions | p. 118 |
Pretesting the Schedule | p. 119 |
Long Versus Short Interviews | p. 119 |
Telephone Interviews | p. 121 |
Advantages of the Telephone Interview | p. 123 |
Disadvantages of the Telephone Interview | p. 123 |
Computer Assisted Interviewing | p. 123 |
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) | p. 124 |
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) | p. 125 |
Web-Based In-Depth Interviews | p. 125 |
Conducting an Interview: A Natural or an Unnatural Communication? | p. 127 |
The Dramaturgical Interview | p. 128 |
Interviewer Roles and Rapport | p. 130 |
The Role of the Interviewee | p. 132 |
The Interviewer as a Self-Conscious Performer | p. 132 |
Social Interpretations and the Interviewer | p. 133 |
The Interviewer's Repertoire | p. 136 |
Interviewers' Attitudes and Persuading a Subject | p. 139 |
Developing an Interviewer Repertoire | p. 140 |
Techniques to Get New Researchers Started | p. 141 |
Taking the Show on the Road | p. 142 |
The Ten Commandments of Interviewing | p. 143 |
Know Your Audience | p. 144 |
Curtain Calls | p. 146 |
Analyzing Data Obtained from the Dramaturgical Interview | p. 146 |
Beginning an Analysis | p. 147 |
Systematic Filing Systems | p. 147 |
Short-Answer Sheets | p. 149 |
Analysis Procedures: A Concluding Remark | p. 149 |
Trying It Out | p. 150 |
Notes | p. 151 |
References | p. 152 |
Focus Group Interviewing | p. 158 |
What are Focus Group Interviews? | p. 158 |
The Moderator's Role | p. 159 |
Some Problems to Avoid in Focus Group Interviewing | p. 160 |
The Evolution of Focus Group Interviews | p. 163 |
Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus Group Interviewing | p. 165 |
Focus Group Interviewing and Face-to-Face Interviewing | p. 166 |
Focus Group Interviewing and Participant Observation | p. 168 |
Focus Group Interviewing and Unobtrusive Measures | p. 169 |
Facilitating Focus Group Dynamics: How Focus Groups Work | p. 172 |
The Moderator's Guide | p. 172 |
Introduction and Introductory Activities | p. 173 |
Statement of the Basic Rules or Guidelines for the Interview | p. 173 |
Short Question-and-Answer Discussions | p. 174 |
Special Activities or Exercises | p. 174 |
Guidance for Dealing with Sensitive Issues | p. 175 |
Basic Ingredients in Focus Groups | p. 175 |
Analyzing Focus Group Data | p. 180 |
Confidentiality and Focus Group Interviews | p. 181 |
Recent Trends in Focus Groups: Online Focus Groups | p. 183 |
Conclusion | p. 184 |
Trying It Out | p. 185 |
Notes | p. 185 |
References | p. 186 |
Ethnographic Field Strategies | p. 190 |
Accessing a Field Setting: Getting In | p. 194 |
Reflectivity and Ethnography | p. 198 |
Critical Ethnography | p. 198 |
The Attitude of the Ethnographer | p. 200 |
The Researcher's Voice | p. 200 |
Gaining Entry | p. 204 |
Becoming Invisible | p. 207 |
Dangers of Invisibility | p. 209 |
Other Dangers During Ethnographic Research | p. 211 |
Watching, Listening, and Learning | p. 213 |
How to Learn: What to Watch and Listen For | p. 215 |
Field Notes | p. 218 |
Computers and Ethnography | p. 225 |
OnLine Ethnography | p. 226 |
Analyzing Ethnographic Data | p. 228 |
Other Analysis Strategies: Typologies, Sociograms, and Metaphors | p. 230 |
Typologies | p. 230 |
Sociograms | p. 232 |
Metaphors | p. 236 |
Disengaging: Getting Out | p. 236 |
Trying It Out | p. 238 |
References | p. 238 |
Action Research | p. 246 |
The Basics of Action Research | p. 251 |
Identifying the Research Question(s) | p. 253 |
Gathering the Information to Answer the Question(s) | p. 254 |
Analyzing and Interpreting the Information | p. 254 |
Procedures for Using Interview and Ethnographic Data | p. 255 |
Guiding Questions of Analysis: Why, What, How, Who, Where, When? | p. 255 |
Descriptive Accounts and Reports | p. 256 |
Sharing the Results with the Participants | p. 256 |
When to Use and When Not to Use Action Research | p. 257 |
The Action Researcher's Role | p. 258 |
Types of Action Research | p. 258 |
Technical/Scientific/Collaborative Mode | p. 259 |
A Practical/Mutual Collaborative/Deliberate Mode | p. 259 |
Emancipating or Empowering/Enhancing/Critical Science Mode | p. 260 |
Photovoice and Action Research | p. 261 |
The Goals in Photovoice | p. 262 |
Action Research: A Reiteration | p. 263 |
Trying It Out | p. 264 |
References | p. 265 |
Unobtrusive Measures in Research | p. 268 |
Archival Strategies | p. 271 |
Public Archives | p. 271 |
Private Archives: Solicited and Unsolicited Documents | p. 282 |
A Last Remark about Archival Records | p. 286 |
Physical Erosion and accretion: Human Traces as Data Sources | p. 287 |
Erosion Measures | p. 287 |
Accretion Measures | p. 288 |
Some Final Remarks about Physical Traces | p. 289 |
Trying It Out | p. 290 |
References | p. 290 |
Historiography and Oral Traditions | p. 296 |
What Is Historical Research? | p. 296 |
Life Histories and Historiography | p. 300 |
What Are the Sources of Data of Historical Researchers? | p. 300 |
Doing Historiography: Tracing Written History as Data | p. 301 |
External Criticism | p. 303 |
Internal Criticism | p. 307 |
What Are Oral Histories? | p. 309 |
Trying It Out | p. 313 |
References | p. 313 |
Case Studies | p. 317 |
The Nature of Case Studies | p. 317 |
Theory and Case Studies | p. 319 |
The Individual Case Study | p. 322 |
The Use of Interview Data | p. 322 |
The Use of Personal Documents | p. 324 |
Intrinsic, Instrumental, and Collective Case Studies | p. 325 |
Case Study Design Types | p. 326 |
Exploratory Case Studies | p. 327 |
Explanatory Case Studies | p. 327 |
Descriptive Case Studies | p. 327 |
The Scientific Benefit of Case Studies | p. 329 |
Objectivity and the Case Method | p. 329 |
Generalizability | p. 330 |
Case Studies of Organizations | p. 330 |
Case Studies of Communities | p. 331 |
Data Collection for Community Case Studies | p. 332 |
Community Groups and Interests | p. 333 |
Trying It Out | p. 334 |
References | p. 335 |
An Introduction to Content Analysis | p. 338 |
What is Content Analysis? | p. 338 |
Analysis of Qualitative Data | p. 339 |
Interpretative Approaches | p. 339 |
Social Anthropological Approaches | p. 339 |
Collaborative Social Research Approaches | p. 340 |
Content Analysis as a Technique | p. 341 |
Content Analysis: Quantitative or Qualitative? | p. 342 |
Manifest Versus Latent Content Analysis | p. 343 |
Blending Manifest and Latent Content Analysis Strategies | p. 344 |
Communication Components | p. 345 |
What to Count: Levels and Units of Analysis | p. 346 |
Category Development: Building Grounded Theory | p. 346 |
What to Count | p. 348 |
Combinations of Elements | p. 349 |
Units and Categories | p. 350 |
Classes and Categories | p. 351 |
Discourse Analysis and Content Analysis | p. 352 |
Open Coding | p. 353 |
Coding Frames | p. 356 |
A Few More Words on Analytic Induction | p. 358 |
Interrogative Hypothesis Testing | p. 360 |
Stages in the Content Analysis Process | p. 362 |
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Content Analysis Process | p. 364 |
Computers and Qualitative Analysis | p. 366 |
Word Processors | p. 368 |
Text Retrievers | p. 368 |
Textbase Managers | p. 368 |
Code-and-Retrieve Programs | p. 368 |
Code-Based Theory Builders | p. 369 |
Conceptual Network Builders | p. 369 |
Qualitative Research at the Speed of Light | p. 371 |
Trying It Out | p. 372 |
References | p. 373 |
Writing Research Papers: Sorting the Noodles from the Soup | p. 378 |
Plagiarism: What It Is, Why It's Bad, and How to Avoid It | p. 379 |
Why Plagiarism Occurs | p. 379 |
How to Avoid Plagiarism | p. 380 |
Identifying the Purpose of the Writing: Arranging the Noodles | p. 382 |
Delineating a Supportive Structure: Visual Signals for the Reader | p. 383 |
The Title | p. 386 |
The Abstract | p. 386 |
The Introduction | p. 387 |
Literature Review | p. 388 |
Methodology | p. 390 |
Findings or Results | p. 392 |
Discussion/Conclusion | p. 392 |
References, Notes, and Appendices | p. 393 |
Presenting Research Material | p. 396 |
Disseminating the Research: Professional Meetings and Publications | p. 396 |
A Word About the Content of Papers and Articles | p. 400 |
Write It, Rewrite It, Then Write It Again! | p. 400 |
A Few Writing Hints | p. 402 |
A Final Note | p. 404 |
Notes | p. 405 |
References | p. 406 |
Name Index | p. 408 |
Subject Index | p. 413 |
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