Research Design in Clinical Psychology

by Kazdin, Alan E.

• ISBN13: 9780205332922
• ISBN10: 0205332927
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-02-08
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

In this successful text, Kazdin describes research methods in psychology and provides criteria for conducting and evaluating clinical research.This text's emphasis is on clinical psychology, but the issues and methods it discusses are relevant to counseling, school psychology and psychiatry. The various stages of research are discussed, with an emphasis on the special demands that are placed on the investigator. Research Design in Clinical Psychology continues to explain how methodology is an approach toward problem solving, thinking, and acquiring knowledge.This revised edition includes several new topics, as well as an expansion of core topics from the previous edition, which reflect the evolving nature of methodology and the proliferation of clinical research into many topic areas. Students and clinicians will gain a thorough knowledge of the entire research process from developing the idea, selecting methods, analyzing the results, and preparing the written scientific report.To ensure that the book conveys practices concretely, many examples are presented both from research and from everyday life. More attention has been given to specific methodological practices intended to address principles and issues when designing a study.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
About the Author	xviii
Introduction	1	(21)
Methodology and Research Design	3	(4)
Overview	3	(3)
Tasks of Research	6	(1)
Key Concepts Underlying Methodology	7	(5)
Parsimony	7	(2)
Plausible Rival Hypotheses	9	(2)
Findings versus Conclusions	11	(1)
Philosophy of Science, Research Methodology, and Statistical Inference	12	(1)
Characteristics of Research in Clinical Psychology	13	(2)
The ``Psychology'' of Research Methodology	15	(2)
Overview of the Book	17	(5)
Drawing Valid Inferences I: Internal and External Validity	22	(33)
Types of Validity	23	(1)
Internal Validity	24	(12)
Threats to Internal Validity	24	(10)
General Comments	34	(2)
External Validity	36	(13)
Threats to External Validity	36	(12)
General Comments	48	(1)
Perspectives on Internal and External Validity	49	(4)
Plausibility and Parsimony	49	(2)
Priority of Internal Validity	51	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	53	(2)
Drawing Valid Inferences II: Construct and Statistical Conclusion Validity	55	(27)
Construct Validity	56	(10)
Threats to Construct Validity	58	(8)
General Comments	66	(1)
Statistical Conclusion Validity	66	(11)
Overview of Essential Concepts	67	(3)
Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity	70	(6)
General Comments	76	(1)
Experimental Precision	77	(3)
Holding Constant versus Controlling Sources of Variation	78	(1)
Tradeoffs	79	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	80	(2)
Sources of Artifact and Bias	82	(28)
Sources of Bias	83	(18)
Rationales, Scripts, and Procedures	83	(4)
Experimenter Expectancy Effects	87	(3)
Experimenter Characteristics	90	(1)
Situational and Contextual Cues	91	(3)
Subject Roles	94	(3)
Data Recording and Analysis	97	(4)
Subject-Selection Biases	101	(7)
The Sample: Who Is Selected for the Study?	101	(4)
Attrition: Who Remains in the Study?	105	(3)
Summary and Conclusions	108	(2)
Selection of the Research Problem and Design	110	(38)
Research Ideas	111	(13)
Sources of Ideas	111	(5)
Levels of Understanding and the Focus of the Study	116	(8)
Theory as a Guide to Research	124	(6)
Definition and Scope	124	(2)
Why Theory Is Needed	126	(2)
Generating versus Testing Hypotheses	128	(2)
From Ideas to Operations	130	(4)
Operational Definitions	130	(1)
Multiple Operations to Represent Constructs	131	(2)
Discrepancies among Definitions	133	(1)
General Comments	134	(1)
Variables to Investigate	134	(3)
Types of Variables	134	(2)
Investigation of Multiple Variables	136	(1)
Research Design Options	137	(9)
Types of Research	137	(2)
Design Strategies	139	(1)
Conditions of Experimentation	140	(4)
Time Frame for Research	144	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	146	(2)
Experimental Research: Group Designs	148	(36)
Subject Selection	149	(5)
Random Selection	149	(1)
Who Will Serve as Subjects and Why?	150	(4)
Subject Assignment and Group Formation	154	(7)
Random Assignment	154	(2)
Group Equivalence	156	(1)
Matching	157	(2)
Mismatching	159	(2)
Selected Group Designs	161	(12)
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design	162	(2)
Posttest-Only Control Group Design	164	(1)
Solomon Four-Group Design	165	(1)
Factorial Designs	166	(3)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	169	(4)
Multiple-Treatment Designs	173	(8)
Crossover Design	174	(1)
Multiple-Treatment Counterbalanced Design	175	(1)
Considerations in Using the Designs	176	(5)
Summary and Conclusions	181	(3)
Control and Comparison Groups	184	(29)
Control Groups	185	(15)
No-Treatment Control Group	185	(2)
Waiting-List Control Group	187	(2)
No-Contact Control Group	189	(2)
Nonspecific-Treatment or ``Attention-Placebo'' Control Group	191	(4)
Routine or Standard Treatment	195	(2)
Yoked Control Group	197	(2)
Nonrandomly Assigned or Nonequivalent Control Group	199	(1)
Key Considerations in Group Selection	200	(2)
Progression of Control and Comparison Groups: Evaluating Psychotherapy	202	(9)
Treatment-Package Strategy	203	(1)
Dismantling-Treatment Strategy	204	(1)
Constructive-Treatment Strategy	205	(1)
Parametric-Treatment Strategy	206	(1)
Comparative-Treatment Strategy	207	(1)
Treatment-Moderator Strategy	208	(1)
Treatment-Mediator Strategy	209	(1)
General Comments	210	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	211	(2)
Assessing thee Impact of the Experimental Manipulation	213	(20)
Checking on the Experimental Manipulation	214	(7)
Types of Manipulations	214	(5)
Utility of Checking the Manipulation	219	(2)
Interpretive Problems in Checking the Manipulation	221	(4)
Varied Data Patterns	221	(4)
Special Issues and Considerations	225	(5)
Assessment Issues	225	(2)
The Influence of Nonmanipulated Variables	227	(1)
Excluding Subjects in the Data Analyses	227	(3)
Establishing Potent Manipulations	230	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	231	(2)
Observational Research: Case-Control and Cohort Designs	233	(32)
Case-Control Designs	235	(6)
Cross-Sectional Design	236	(1)
Retrospective Design	237	(2)
Considerations in Using Case-Control Designs	239	(2)
Cohort Designs	241	(11)
Single-Group Cohort Design	241	(2)
Multigroup Cohort Design	243	(3)
Accelerated, Multicohort Longitudinal Design	246	(2)
Considerations in Using Cohort Designs	248	(4)
Critical Issues in Designing and Interpreting Observational Studies	252	(11)
Specifying the Construct	252	(4)
Selecting Groups	256	(5)
Time Line and Causal Inferences	261	(1)
General Comments	262	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	263	(2)
The Case Study and Single-Case Research Designs	265	(35)
The Case Study	267	(6)
The Value of the Case Study	268	(2)
Illustrations	270	(2)
Limitations of the Case Study	272	(1)
Single-Case Experimental Designs: Key Characteristics	273	(7)
Continuous Assessment	274	(1)
Baseline Assessment	275	(1)
Stability of Performance	276	(4)
Major Experimental Design Strategies	280	(10)
ABAB Designs	280	(3)
Multiple-Baseline Designs	283	(3)
Changing-Criterion Designs	286	(3)
General Comments	289	(1)
Data Evaluation in Single-Case Research	290	(8)
Criteria for Visual Inspection	291	(5)
Problems and Considerations	296	(1)
General Comments	297	(1)
Summary arid Conclusions	298	(2)
Evaluation of the Single Case in Clinical Work	300	(28)
Quasi-Experiments with the Single Case	301	(11)
What to Do to Improve the Quality of Inferences	301	(2)
Design Variations	303	(3)
Case Illustrations	306	(6)
Methods for Assessment and Evaluation in Clinical Practice	312	(14)
Steps for Evaluation in Clinical Work	313	(5)
Case Illustration	318	(6)
Issues and Limitations	324	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	326	(2)
Qualitative Research Methods: An Overview	328	(27)
Key Characteristics	330	(6)
Background	330	(2)
Definition and Core Features	332	(2)
Contrast of Qualitative and Quantitative Research	334	(2)
Methods and Analyses	336	(6)
The Data for Qualitative Analysis	336	(1)
Drawing Valid Inferences	337	(3)
Generality of the Results	340	(2)
Illustrations	342	(9)
Inner-City Youth Who Cease to Commit Crimes	342	(2)
Gender, Power, and Who Gets the Remote Control during TV Time	344	(2)
Single Women and Their Experience	346	(2)
Parents' Experience in Treatment for Their Children	348	(1)
General Comments	349	(2)
Contributions of Qualitative Research	351	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	353	(2)
Assessment Methods and Strategies	355	(53)
Selecting Measures for Research: Key Considerations	356	(6)
Construct Validity	356	(2)
Psychometric Characteristics	358	(2)
Sensitivity of the Measure	360	(1)
General Comments	361	(1)
Using Available Measures or Devising New Measures	362	(5)
Using a Standardized Measure	362	(1)
Varying the Use or Contents of an Existing Measure	363	(2)
Developing a New Measure	365	(1)
General Comments	366	(1)
Modalities and Methods of Assessment	367	(20)
Global Ratings	368	(4)
Self-Report Inventories, Questionnaires, and Scales	372	(3)
Projective Techniques	375	(2)
Direct Observations of Behavior	377	(3)
Psychobiological Measures	380	(3)
Computerized Assessment	383	(2)
General Comments	385	(2)
Unobtrusiveness and Reactivity of Psychological Measures	387	(3)
Nature of the Problem	387	(2)
Potential Solutions with Traditional (Obtrusive) Measures	389	(1)
Unobtrusive Measures	390	(6)
Simple Observation	391	(2)
Observation in Contrived Situations	393	(1)
Archival Records	393	(1)
Physical Traces	394	(1)
General Comments	395	(1)
Measurement Strategies and Issues	396	(9)
Use of Multiple Measures	396	(5)
Interrelations of Different Measures	401	(4)
Summary and Conclusions	405	(3)
Assessment and Evaluation of Interventions	408	(28)
Assessing Clinical Significance of the Changes	409	(12)
Comparison Methods	411	(4)
Subjective Evaluation	415	(2)
Social Impact Measures	417	(3)
General Comments	420	(1)
Scope and Breadth of the Changes	421	(1)
Characteristics of the Treatment	422	(5)
Disseminability of Treatment	422	(2)
Cost	424	(3)
Acceptability of Treatment	427	(1)
Assessment During the Course of Treatment	427	(3)
Pre-Post and Continuous Assessment	428	(1)
Evaluating the Mechanisms of Change	429	(1)
Follow-up Assessment	430	(4)
Attrition	430	(1)
Practical Assessment Decisions and Options	431	(3)
General Comments	434	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	434	(2)
Statistical Methods of Data Evaluation	436	(35)
Significance Tests and the Null Hypothesis	437	(14)
Overview	437	(3)
Significance Level (alpha)	440	(1)
Power	441	(4)
Ways to Increase Power	445	(6)
Data Analyses and Designing the Study	451	(1)
Special Topics in Data Analysis	451	(8)
Intent-to-Treat Analysis	451	(3)
Analyses Involving Multiple Comparisons	454	(3)
Multiple Outcomes: Multivariate and Univariate Analyses	457	(2)
Objections to Statistical Significance Testing	459	(4)
Major Concerns	459	(2)
Misinterpretations	461	(1)
Significance Testing and Failures to Replicate	462	(1)
Alternatives or Supplements to Tests of Significance	463	(6)
Magnitude and Strength of Effect	463	(2)
Confidence Intervals	465	(1)
Meta-Analysis	466	(1)
Statistical Significance, Magnitude of Effect, and Clinical Significance	467	(1)
General Comments	468	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	469	(2)
Interpretation of the Data	471	(26)
Interpreting the Results of a Study	472	(7)
Overview	472	(1)
Common Leaps in Language and Conceptualization of the Findings	472	(3)
More Data Analyses Can Enhance Data Interpretation	475	(4)
General Comments	479	(1)
Negative Results or No-Difference Findings	479	(9)
Ambiguity of Negative Results	480	(4)
When Negative Results Are Interpretable	484	(2)
When Negative Results Are Important	486	(2)
Replication	488	(7)
Types of Replication	489	(2)
Importance of Replication	491	(4)
General Comments	495	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	495	(2)
Ethical Issues and Guidelines for Research	497	(48)
Contemporary Context and Scope of the Issues	498	(4)
Critical Issues in Research	502	(9)
Deception	502	(4)
Debriefing	506	(1)
Invasion of Privacy	507	(4)
Informed Consent	511	(7)
Conditions and Elements	511	(3)
Consent Forms	514	(1)
Letter and Spirit of Consent	515	(3)
Intervention Research Issues	518	(5)
Informing Clients about Treatment	518	(1)
Withholding the Intervention	519	(1)
Control Groups and Treatments of Questionable Efficacy	520	(1)
Consent and the Interface with Threats to Validity	521	(1)
General Comments	522	(1)
Ethical Guidelines for Research Practices	523	(4)
Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity	527	(15)
Fraud in Science	528	(2)
Allocation of Credit	530	(3)
Sharing of Materials and Data	533	(3)
Conflict of Interest	536	(4)
Guiding Principles and Responsibilities	540	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	542	(3)
Publication and Communication of Research Findings	545	(16)
Publication Process: An Overview	546	(4)
Methodologically Informed Manuscript Preparation	550	(9)
Overview	550	(1)
Main Sections of the Article	551	(5)
Questions to Guide Manuscript Preparation	556	(2)
General Comments	558	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	559	(2)
Closing Comments: Methodology in Perspective	561	(10)
Goals of Methodology	561	(2)
Substantive Contribution of Methodology	563	(3)
Final Word: Abbreviated Guidelines for a Well-Designed Study	566	(5)
Glossary	571	(14)
References	585	(32)
Author Index	617	(12)
Subject Index	629