Research Methods For The Behavioral Sciences

by Stangor, Charles

• ISBN13: 9780618705917
• ISBN10: 0618705910
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2006-05-16
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

Appropriate for social science students, this text offers comprehensive coverage of both experimental and non-experimental methods. The author provides succinct explanations for a full range of methods, including descriptive, correlational, experimental, and quasi-experimental research designs. Practical tips and applications integrated throughout the text allow students to make real-world connections that encourage them to master the material. Full coverage of APA-style research reports is included in a separate appendix (A). A fully-annotated sample manuscript is also included. An emphasis on the process of measuring variables includes detailed coverage of reliability and construct validity integrated with measurement in descriptive and naturalistic research designs.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
PART ONE GETTING STARTED	1	(62)
Introduction to Research	2	(22)
Behavioral Research	4	(1)
Everyday Science Versus Empirical Research	5	(3)
Relying on Our Intuition	6	(1)
Discovering the Limitations of Using Intuition	6	(2)
The Scientific Method	8	(1)
Values Versus Facts in Scientific Research	8	(3)
Basic and Applied Research	11	(1)
The Importance of Studying Research Methods	12	(1)
Evaluating Research Reports	12	(1)
Conducting Research	12	(1)
Thinking Critically About Research	13	(1)
Research Designs: Three Approaches to Studying Behavior	13	(7)
Descriptive Research: Assessing the Current State of Affairs	14	(2)
Correlational Research: Seeking Relationships Among Variables	16	(2)
Experimental Research: Understanding the Causes of Behavior	18	(1)
The Selection of an Appropriate Method	19	(1)
Summary	20	(1)
Key Terms	21	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	22	(1)
Hands-On Experience	22	(2)
Developing the Research Hypothesis	24	(15)
Getting Ideas	25	(3)
Solving Important Real-World Problems	26	(1)
Using Observation and Intuition	26	(1)
Using Existing Research	27	(1)
Doing a Literature Search	28	(5)
Locating Sources of Information	29	(1)
Conducting the Search	30	(3)
Formalizing Ideas into Research Hypotheses	33	(4)
Laws	33	(1)
Theories	34	(1)
The Research Hypothesis	35	(2)
Summary	37	(1)
Key Terms	37	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	37	(1)
Hands-On Experience	38	(1)
Ethics in Research	39	(24)
What Is Ethical Research?	40	(2)
Protecting Research Participants from Physical and Psychological Harm	42	(3)
Types of Threats	42	(2)
The Potential for Lasting-Impact	44	(1)
Providing Freedom of Choice	45	(4)
Conducting Research Outside the Laboratory	45	(1)
Securing Informed Consent	46	(2)
Weighing Informed Consent Versus the Research Goals	48	(1)
Maintaining Awareness of Power Differentials	49	(1)
Avoiding Abuses of Power	49	(1)
Respecting Participants' Privacy	49	(1)
Honestly Describing the Nature and Use of the Research	50	(4)
When Deception Is Necessary	51	(1)
Simulation Studies: An Alternative to Deception	51	(1)
The Consequences of Deception	52	(1)
Debriefing	52	(2)
Using Animals as Research Participants	54	(1)
Ensuring that Research Is Ethical	55	(4)
The Institutional Review Board	57	(1)
The Researcher's Own Ethics	57	(1)
Correctly and Honestly Reporting Research Results	58	(1)
Summary	59	(1)
Key Terms	59	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	60	(1)
Hands-On Experience	60	(3)
PART TWO MEASURING AND DESCRIBING	63	(70)
Measures	64	(21)
Fundamentals of Measurement	65	(5)
Operational Definition	65	(1)
Converging Operations	66	(1)
Conceptual and Measured Variables	67	(1)
Nominal and Quantitative Variables	68	(1)
Measurement Scales	69	(1)
Self-Report Measures	70	(8)
Free-Format Self-Report Measures	70	(2)
Fixed-Format Self-Report Measures	72	(5)
Reactivity as a Limitation in Self-Report Measures	77	(1)
Behavioral Measures	78	(3)
Nonreactive Measures	80	(1)
Psychophysiological Measures	80	(1)
Choosing a Measure	81	(1)
Summary	82	(1)
Key Terms	83	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	83	(1)
Hands-On Experience	84	(1)
Reliability and Validity	85	(17)
Random and Systematic Error	86	(2)
Reliability	88	(4)
Test-Retest Reliability	88	(1)
Reliability as Internal Consistency	89	(3)
Interrater Reliability	92	(1)
Construct Validity	92	(5)
Face Validity	93	(1)
Content Validity	94	(1)
Convergent and Discriminant Validity	94	(2)
Criterion Validity	96	(1)
Improving the Reliability and Validity of Measured Variables	97	(1)
Comparing Reliability and Validity	98	(2)
Summary	100	(1)
Key Terms	100	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	101	(1)
Hands-On Experience	101	(1)
Surveys and Sampling	102	(19)
Surveys	103	(3)
Interviews	103	(1)
Questionnaires	104	(1)
Use of Existing Survey Data	105	(1)
Sampling and Generalization	106	(4)
Definition of the Population	106	(1)
Probability Sampling	106	(3)
Sampling Bias and Nonprobability Sampling	109	(1)
Summarizing the Sample Data	110	(8)
Frequency Distributions	110	(4)
Descriptive Statistics	114	(4)
Sample Size and the Margin of Error	118	(1)
Summary	119	(1)
Key Terms	119	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	120	(1)
Hands-On Experience	120	(1)
Naturalistic Methods	121	(12)
Naturalistic Research	122	(1)
Observational Research	123	(3)
The Unacknowledged Participant	124	(1)
The Acknowledged Participant	125	(1)
Acknowledged and Unacknowledged Observers	126	(1)
Case Studies	126	(1)
Systematic Coding Methods	127	(3)
Deciding What to Observe	128	(1)
Deciding How to Record Observations	128	(1)
Choosing Sampling Strategies	128	(2)
Archival Research	130	(1)
Summary	131	(1)
Key Terms	131	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	131	(1)
Hands-On Experience	132	(1)
PART THREE TESTING RESEARCH HYPOTHESES	133	(60)
Hypothesis Testing and Inferential Statistics	134	(16)
Probability and Inferential Statistics	135	(2)
Sampling Distributions and Hypothesis Testing	137	(4)
The Null Hypothesis	138	(1)
Testing for Statistical Significance	139	(2)
Reduction of Inferential Errors	141	(4)
Type 1 Errors	141	(1)
Type 2 Errors	142	(1)
Statistical Power	143	(1)
The Tradeoff Between Type 1 and Type 2 Errors	144	(1)
Statistical Significance and the Effect Size	145	(3)
Practical Uses of the Effect Size Statistic	146	(2)
Summary	148	(1)
Key Terms	148	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	148	(1)
Hands-On Experience	149	(1)
Correlational Research Designs	150	(22)
Associations Among Quantitative Variables	151	(3)
Linear Relationships	153	(1)
Nonlinear Relationships	153	(1)
Statistical Assessment of Relationships	154	(7)
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient	154	(1)
The Chi-Square Statistic	155	(4)
Multiple Regression	159	(2)
Correlation and Causality	161	(8)
Interpreting Correlations	161	(3)
Using Correlational Data to Test Causal Models	164	(5)
When Correlational Designs Are Appropriate	169	(1)
Summary	169	(1)
Key Terms	170	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	171	(1)
Hands-On Experience	171	(1)
Experimental Research: One-Way Designs	172	(21)
Demonstration of Causality	173	(1)
Association	173	(1)
Temporal Priority	174	(1)
Control of Common-Causal Variables	174	(1)
One-Way Experimental Designs	174	(5)
The Experimental Manipulation	175	(1)
Selection of the Dependent Variable	176	(1)
Variety and Number of Levels	177	(2)
Analysis of Variance	179	(3)
Hypothesis Testing in Experimental Designs	179	(1)
Between-Groups and Within-Groups Variance Estimates	180	(1)
The ANOVA Summary Table	180	(2)
Repeated-Measures Designs	182	(4)
Advantages of Repeated-Measures Designs	183	(1)
Disadvantages of Repeated-Measures Designs	183	(2)
When to Use a Repeated-Measures Design	185	(1)
Presentation of Experiment Results	186	(1)
When Experiments Are Appropriate	187	(1)
Summary	188	(1)
Key Terms	189	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	189	(1)
Hands-On Experience	190	(3)
PART FOUR DESIGNING AND INTERPRETING RESEARCH	193	(77)
Experimental Research: Factorial Designs	194	(19)
Factorial Experimental Designs	195	(6)
The Two-Way Design	196	(1)
Main Effects	197	(2)
Interactions and Simple Effects	199	(1)
The ANOVA Summary Table	199	(2)
Understanding Interactions	201	(3)
Patterns of Observed Means	201	(2)
Interpretation of Main Effects When Interactions Are Present	203	(1)
More Factorial Designs	204	(4)
The Three-Way Design	204	(2)
Factorial Designs Using Repeated Measures	206	(2)
Comparison of the Condition Means in Experimental Designs	208	(2)
Pairwise Comparisons	208	(1)
Complex Comparisons	209	(1)
Summary	210	(1)
Key Terms	210	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	210	(1)
Hands-On Experience	211	(2)
Experimental Control and Internal Validity	213	(25)
Threats to the Validity of Research	214	(1)
Experimental Control	215	(2)
Extraneous Variables	216	(1)
Confounding Variables	216	(1)
Control of Extraneous Variables	217	(5)
Limited-Population Designs	217	(1)
Before-After Designs	218	(2)
Matched-Group Designs	220	(1)
Standardization of Conditions	221	(1)
Creation of Valid Manipulations	222	(5)
Impact and Experimental Realism	222	(1)
Manipulation Checks	223	(2)
Confound Checks	225	(1)
How to Turn Confounding Variables into Factors	225	(1)
Pilot Testing	226	(1)
Threats to Internal Validity	227	(7)
Placebo Effects	227	(1)
Demand Characteristics	228	(3)
Experimenter Bias	231	(1)
Random Assignment Artifacts	232	(2)
Summary	234	(1)
Key Terms	235	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	235	(1)
Hands-On Experience	236	(2)
External Validity	238	(16)
Understanding External Validity	239	(1)
Generalization	240	(3)
Generalization Across Participants	240	(2)
Generalization Across Settings	242	(1)
Replications	243	(4)
Exact Replications	244	(1)
Conceptual Replications	244	(1)
Constructive Replications	245	(1)
Participant Replications	246	(1)
Summarizing and Integrating Research Results	247	(4)
Research Programs	247	(1)
Review Papers	248	(1)
Meta-Analysis	248	(3)
Interpretation of Research Literatures	251	(1)
Summary	251	(1)
Key Terms	252	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	252	(1)
Hands-On Experience	253	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Research Designs	254	(16)
Program Evaluation Research	255	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	256	(7)
Single-Group Design	256	(2)
Comparison-Group Design	258	(1)
Single-Group Before-After Design	259	(1)
Comparison-Group Before-After Design	260	(1)
Regression to the Mean as a Threat to Internal Validity	261	(2)
Time-Series Designs	263	(2)
Participant-Variable Designs	265	(1)
Demographic Variables	265	(1)
Personality Variables	265	(1)
Interpretational Difficulties	266	(1)
Single-Participant Designs	266	(2)
Summary	268	(1)
Key Terms	268	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	269	(1)
Hands-On Experience	269	(1)
APPENDIX A Reporting Research Results	270	(48)
Communication of Scientific Knowledge	271	(4)
Face-to-Face Contact	271	(1)
Publication in Scientific Journals	272	(3)
The Research Report	275	(14)
Headings in APA Format	276	(4)
Title Page	280	(1)
Abstract	280	(1)
Introduction	281	(2)
Method	283	(1)
Results	284	(1)
Discussion	285	(2)
References	287	(1)
Footnotes and Author Notes	287	(2)
Tables and Figures	289	(1)
Tips on Writing the Research Report	289	(1)
Summary	290	(1)
Key Terms	291	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	291	(1)
Hands-On Experience	292	(26)
Sample Research Report	293	(25)
APPENDIX B Data Preparation and Univariate Statistics	318	(20)
Preparing Data for Analysis	319	(7)
Collecting the Data	319	(1)
Analyzing the Data	319	(1)
Entering the Data into the Computer	320	(2)
Checking and Cleaning the Data	322	(1)
Dealing with Missing Data	323	(1)
Deleting and Retaining Data	324	(2)
Transforming the Data	326	(1)
Conducting Statistical Analysis	326	(2)
Descriptive Statistics, Parameters, and Inferential Statistics	326	(1)
Statistical Notation	327	(1)
Computing Descriptive Statistics	328	(5)
Frequency Distributions	328	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency	328	(1)
Measures of Dispersion	329	(2)
Computer Output	331	(1)
Standard Scores	331	(1)
The Standard Normal Distribution	332	(1)
Working with Inferential Statistics	333	(2)
Unbiased Estimators	334	(1)
The Central Limit Theorem	334	(1)
The Standard Error	334	(1)
Confidence Intervals	335	(1)
Summary	335	(1)
Key Terms	336	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	336	(1)
Hands-On Experience	337	(1)
APPENDIX C Bivariate Statistics	338	(17)
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient	339	(4)
Calculating r	339	(2)
Obtaining the p-value	341	(2)
Contingency Tables	343	(3)
The Chi-Square Test for Independence	343	(1)
Kappa	344	(2)
Bivariate Regression	346	(2)
The Regression Equation	346	(1)
The Regression Line	347	(1)
Partitioning of the Sum of Squares	348	(1)
One-Way Analysis of Variance	348	(5)
Computation of a One-Way Between-Participants ANOVA	349	(2)
The ANOVA Summary Table	351	(1)
Eta	352	(1)
Summary	353	(1)
Key Terms	353	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	353	(1)
Hands-On Experience	353	(2)
APPENDIX D Multivariate Statistics	355	(20)
Multiple Regression	356	(4)
Regression Coefficients	357	(2)
The Multiple Correlation Coefficient (R)	359	(1)
Hierarchical and Stepwise Analyses	359	(1)
Multiple Regression and ANOVA	359	(1)
Loglinear Analysis	360	(1)
Means Comparisons	361	(3)
A Priori Contrast Analysis	361	(2)
Post Hoc Means Comparisons	363	(1)
Multivariate Statistics	364	(7)
Coefficient Alpha	364	(1)
Exploratory Factor Analysis	365	(3)
Canonical Correlation and MANOVA	368	(1)
Structural Equation Analysis	369	(2)
How to Choose the Appropriate Statistical Test	371	(2)
Summary	373	(1)
Key Terms	373	(1)
Review and Discussion Questions	374	(1)
Hands-On Experience	374	(1)
APPENDIX E Statistical Tables	375	(20)
Statistical Table A: Random Numbers	376	(2)
Selecting a Random Sample	376	(1)
Selecting Orders for Random Assignment Conditions	376	(2)
Statistical Table B: Distribution of z in the Standard Normal Distribution	378	(4)
Statistical Table C: Critical Values of t	382	(1)
Statistical Table D: Critical Values of r	383	(2)
Statistical Table E: Critical Values of Chi Square	385	(1)
Statistical Table F: Critical Values of F	386	(8)
Statistical Table G: Statistical Power	394	(1)
APPENDIX F Using Computers to Collect Data	395	(3)
Glossary	398	(13)
References	411	(8)
Index	419