Owing to its unique combination of high information content and ease of use, Raman spectroscopy, which uses different vibrational energy levels to excite molecules (as opposed to light spectra), has attracted much attention over the past fifteen years. This book covers all aspects of modern Raman spectroscopy, including its growing use in both the laboratory and industrial analysis.

Richard L. McCreery is the author of Raman Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis, published by Wiley.

Preface

ix

Acknowledgments

xiii

List of Symbols

xv

Cumulative Listing of Volumes in Series

xix

Introduction and Scope

1

(14)

History Preceding 1986

1

(4)

Technological Advances

5

(5)

Comparison to FTIR and NIR Absorption

10

(2)

Overview of the Book

12

(3)

Magnitude of Raman Scattering

15

(20)

Theoretical Overview

15

(5)

Definition of Raman Cross Section

20

(4)

Magnitude of Raman Cross Sections

24

(6)

Raman Scattering Intensity

30

(5)

Collection and Detection of Raman Scattering

35

(14)

Signal Magnitude and Collection Function

35

(2)

Instrumental Variables Comprising the Collection Function

37

(4)

Spectrometer Response Function

41

(2)

Multiplex and Multichannel Spectrometers

43

(6)

Signal-to-Noise in Raman Spectroscopy

49

(24)

Definition and Measurement of SNR

49

(3)

Noise Sources

52

(9)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio Expressions

61

(4)

SNR Figure of Merit

65

(2)

SNR and Detection Limits

67

(1)

SNR for Multiplex Spectrometers

68

(5)

Instrumentation Overview and Spectrometer Performance

73

(22)

Major Spectrometer Components

74

(1)

Laser Wavelength

75

(3)

Dispersive vs. Nondispersive Spectrometers

78

(1)

Performance Criteria

79

(4)

Samples for Spectrometer Evaluation

83

(12)

Sampling Modes in Raman Spectroscopy

95

(32)

Sampling Overview

95

(2)

Performance Criteria

97

(2)

180° Backscattering Geometry

99

(15)

90° Sampling Geometry

114

(4)

Reducing the Laser Power Density at the Sample

118

(2)

Path Length Enhancement

120

(2)

Polarization Measurements

122

(5)

Lasers for Raman Spectroscopy

127

(22)

Overview

127

(3)

Ar+ and Kr+ Ion Lasers

130

(3)

Helium--Neon Lasers

133

(1)

Neodymium--YAG (Nd:YAG)

134

(3)

Diode Lasers

137

(5)

Laser Wavelength Filtering

142

(7)

Dispersive Raman Spectrometers

149

(72)

Overview

149

(6)

Dispersive Spectrometer Configurations

155

(24)

Detector Considerations

179

(1)

Single-Channel Detectors

180

(3)

Multichannel Detectors and CCDs

183

(20)

Recording Methods for Dispersive Spectrometers

203

(12)

Examples of Dispersive Raman Applications

215

(6)

Nondispersive Raman Spectrometers

221

(30)

Tunable Bandpass Filters

221

(4)

Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy

225

(15)

Multichannel Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy

240

(5)

Extensions of FT-Raman for Longer Wavelength Operation

245

(1)

FT-Raman Examples

246

(5)

Calibration and Validation

251

(42)

Overview

251

(1)

Frequency and Raman Shift Calibration

251

(18)

Instrument Response Function Calibration

269

(19)

Absolute Response Calibration

288

(1)

Summary of Calibration and Validation Procedures

289

(4)

Raman Microscopy and Imaging

293

(40)

Overview of Raman Microscopy

293

(2)

Single-Point Raman Microspectroscopy

295

(14)

Line Imaging

309

(7)

Two-Dimensional Raman Imaging

316

(17)

Fiber-Optic Raman Sampling

333

(40)

Overview of Fiber-Optic Sampling

333

(1)

Fiber-Optic Basics

334

(3)

Fiber--Spectrometer Interface

337

(5)

Fiber-Optic Probes

342

(17)

Comparisons of Fiber-Optic Sampling Probes

359

(5)

Waveguide Sampling for Analytical Raman Spectroscopy

364

(5)

Examples of Fiber-Optic Sampling

369

(4)

Raman Spectroscopy of Surfaces

373

(42)

Overview

373

(2)

Surface Sensitivity

375

(4)

Sampling Considerations

379

(3)

Surface Raman Spectroscopy without Field Enhancement

382

(8)

Electromagnetic Field Enhancement

390

(19)

Examples of Analytical Applications

409

(6)

Index

415

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Raman Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis

9780471252870

0471252875

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