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9781580536929

Production Testing of Rf and System-On-A-Chip Devices for Wireless Communications

by ;
  • ISBN13:

    9781580536929

  • ISBN10:

    1580536921

  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2004-04-01
  • Publisher: Artech House

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Summary

With the increasing number of integrated wireless devices being developed with SOC (system on a chip) technology, a merger of RF and mixed-signal test approaches is quickly becoming a necessity. Addressing this need head-on, this first-of-its-kind resource offers you an in-depth overview of RF and SOC product testing for wireless communications. The book introduces new, creative methods that lead to more efficient testing, such as multi-site and parallel testing. You learn how to determine critical measurements for specific applications, including Bluetooth, WLAN, and 3G devices. Moreover, the book shows you how to perform these measurements cost effectively in a production test environment.

Table of Contents

Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Production Testing 1(12)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 Characterization Versus Production Testing
1(1)
1.3 The Test Program
2(1)
1.4 Production-Test Equipment
2(1)
1.5 Rack and Stack
2(1)
1.6 Automated Test Equipment
3(1)
1.7 Interfacing with the Test Equipment
3(6)
1.7.1 Handlers
3(2)
1.7.2 Load Boards
5(1)
1.7.3 Contactor Sockets
5(1)
1.7.4 Production RF and SOC Wafer Probing
6(3)
1.8 Calibration
9(1)
1.9 The Test Floor and Test Cell
10(1)
1.10 Test Houses
10(1)
1.11 Accuracy, Repeatability, and Correlation
10(1)
1.12 Design for Testing
11(1)
1.13 Built-in Self-Test
11(2)
References
12(1)
CHAPTER 2 RF and SOC Devices 13(20)
2.1 Introduction
13(2)
2.2 RF Low Noise Amplifier
15(1)
2.3 RF Power Amplifier
15(1)
2.4 RF Mixer
16(3)
2.5 RF Switch
19(1)
2.6 Variable Gain Amplifier
20(2)
2.7 Modulator
22(1)
2.8 Demodulator
23(1)
2.9 Transmitter
24(1)
2.10 Receiver
24(1)
2.11 Transceiver
25(1)
2.12 Wireless Radio Architectures
26(1)
2.13 Superheterodyne Wireless Radio
26(1)
2.14 Zero Intermediate Frequency Wireless Radio
26(2)
2.15 Phase Locked Loop
28(2)
2.16 RF and SOC Device Tests
30(3)
References
31(2)
CHAPTER 3 Cost of Test 33(16)
3.1 Introduction
33(1)
3.2 Wafer Processing Improves Cost of Test
33(3)
3.3 Early Testing of the SOC
36(1)
3.4 SCM and IDM
37(1)
3.5 SOC Cost-of-Test Paradigm Shift
37(1)
3.6 Key Cost-of-Test Modeling Parameters
38(7)
3.6.1 Fixed Cost
39(1)
3.6.2 Recurring Cost
39(1)
3.6.3 Lifetime
40(1)
3.6.4 Utilization
40(1)
3.6.5 Yield
41(1)
3.6.6 Accuracy as It Relates to Yield
42(3)
3.7 Other Factors Influencing COT
45(1)
3.7.1 Multisite and Parallel Testing
45(1)
3.7.2 Test Engineer Skill
46(1)
3.8 Summary
46(3)
References
46(3)
CHAPTER 4 Production Testing of RF Devices 49(46)
4.1 Introduction
49(1)
4.2 Measuring Voltage Versus Measuring Power
49(1)
4.3 Transmission Line Theory Versus Lumped-Element Analysis
50(1)
4.4 The History of Power Measurements
51(1)
4.5 The Importance of Power
52(1)
4.6 Power Measurement Units and Definitions
53(1)
4.7 The Decibel
53(1)
4.8 Power Expressed in dBm
54(1)
4.9 Power
54(1)
4.10 Average Power
55(1)
4.11 Pulse Power
56(1)
4.12 Modulated Power
56(1)
4.13 RMS Power
57(1)
4.14 Gain
58(2)
4.14.1 Gain Measurements of Wireless SOC Devices
60(1)
4.15 Gain Flatness
61(6)
4.15.1 Measuring Gain Flatness
63(2)
4.15.2 Automatic Gain Control Flatness
65(2)
4.16 Power-Added Efficiency
67(1)
4.17 Transfer Function for RF Devices
68(1)
4.18 Power Compression
69(3)
4.19 Mixer Conversion Compression
72(1)
4.20 Harmonic and Intermodulation Distortion
72(7)
4.20.1 Harmonic Distortion
73(2)
4.20.2 Intermodulation Distortion
75(4)
4.20.3 Receiver Architecture Considerations for Intermodulation Products
79(1)
4.21 Adjacent Channel Power Ratio
79(3)
4.21.1 The Basics of CDMA
79(2)
4.21.2 Measuring ACPR
81(1)
4.22 Filter Testing
82(2)
4.23 S-Parameters
84(7)
4.23.1 Introduction
84(1)
4.23.2 How It Is Done
84(1)
4.23.3 S-Parameters of a Two-Port Device
85(1)
4.23.4 Scalar Measurements Related to S-Parameters
86(2)
4.23.5 S-Parameters Versus Transfer Function
88(1)
4.23.6 How to Realize S-Parameter Measurements
89(1)
4.23.7 Characteristics of a Bridge
89(1)
4.23.8 Characteristics of a Coupler
90(1)
4.24 Summary
91(2)
References
92(1)
Appendix 4A: VSWR, Return Loss, and Reflection Coefficient
93(2)
CHAPTER 5 Production Testing of SOC Devices 95(50)
5.1 Introduction
95(1)
5.2 SOC Integration Levels
96(1)
5.3 Origins of Bluetooth
97(1)
5.4 Introduction to Bluetooth
98(1)
5.5 Frequency Hopping
99(1)
5.6 Bluetooth Modulation
100(1)
5.7 Bluetooth Data Rates and Data Packets
100(2)
5.8 Adaptive Power Control
102(1)
5.9 The Parts of a Bluetooth Radio
102(1)
5.10 Phase Locked Loop
103(1)
5.11 Divider
104(1)
5.12 Phase Detector, Charge Pumps, and LPF
104(1)
5.13 Voltage Controlled Oscillator
104(1)
5.14 How Does a PLL Work?
104(1)
5.15 Synthesizer Settling Time
105(1)
5.16 Testing Synthesizer Settling Time in Production
106(1)
5.17 Power Versus Time
106(4)
5.18 Differential Phase Versus Time
110(2)
5.19 Digital Control of an SOC
112(1)
5.20 Transmitter Tests
113(11)
5.20.1 Transmit Output Spectrum
114(3)
5.20.2 Modulation Characteristics
117(1)
5.20.3 Initial Carrier Frequency Tolerance
118(1)
5.20.4 Carrier Frequency Drift
119(1)
5.20.5 VCO Drift
120(1)
5.20.6 Frequency Pulling and Pushing
120(4)
5.21 Receiver Tests
124(8)
5.21.1 Bit Error Rate
125(2)
5.21.2 Bit Error Rate Methods
127(1)
5.21.3 Programmable Delay Line Method (XOR Method)
127(1)
5.21.4 Field Programmable Gate Array Method
128(1)
5.21.5 BER Testing with a Digital Pin
128(2)
5.21.6 BER Measurement with a Digitizer
130(2)
5.22 BER Receiver Measurements
132(5)
5.22.1 Sensitivity BER Test
132(1)
5.22.2 Carrier-to-Interference BER Tests
133(1)
5.22.3 Cochannel Interference BER Tests
133(1)
5.22.4 Adjacent Channel Interference BER Tests
133(2)
5.22.5 Inband and Out-of-Band Blocking BER Tests
135(1)
5.22.6 Intermodulation Interference BER Tests
135(2)
5.22.7 Maximum Input Power Level BER Test
137(1)
5.23 EVM Introduction
137(8)
5.23.1 I/Q Diagrams
137(1)
5.23.2 Definition of Error Vector Magnitude
138(1)
5.23.3 Making the Measurement
139(2)
5.23.4 Related Signal Quality Measurements
141(1)
5.23.5 Comparison of EVM with More Traditional Methods of Testing
142(1)
5.23.6 Should EVM Be Used for Production Testing?
142(1)
References
143(2)
CHAPTER 6 Fundamentals of Analog and Mixed-Signal Testing 145(30)
6.1 Introduction
145(1)
6.2 Sampling Basics and Conventions
145(2)
6.2.1 DC Offsets and Peak-to-Peak Input Voltages
146(1)
6.3 The Fourier Transform and the FFT
147(3)
6.3.1 The Fourier Series
147(1)
6.3.2 The Fourier Transform
147(2)
6.3.3 The Discrete Fourier Transform
149(1)
6.3.4 The Fast Fourier Transform
150(1)
6.4 Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Description and Dependencies
150(4)
6.4.1 Negative Frequency
150(1)
6.4.2 Convolution
151(1)
6.4.3 Frequency- and Time-Domain Transformations
152(2)
6.5 Nyquist Sampling Theory
154(2)
6.6 Dynamic Measurements
156(7)
6.6.1 Coherent Sampling and Windowing
156(3)
6.6.2 SNR for AWGs and Digitizers
159(1)
6.6.3 SINAD and Harm Distortion
160(3)
6.7 Static Measurements
163(2)
6.7.1 DC Offset
163(1)
6.7.2 INL/DNL for AWGs and Digitizers
164(1)
6.8 Real Signals and Their Representations
165(2)
6.8.1 Differences Between V, W, dB, dBc, dBV, and dBm
165(1)
6.8.2 Transformation Formulas
166(1)
6.9 ENOB and Noise Floor: Similarities and Differences
167(1)
6.10 Phase Noise and Jitter
167(1)
6.10.1 Phase Noise and How It Relates to RF Systems
168(1)
6.10.2 Jitter and How It Affects Sampling
168(1)
6.11 I/Q Modulation and Complex FFTs
168(3)
6.11.1 System Considerations for Accurate I/Q Characterization
168(1)
6.11.2 Amplitude and Phase Balance Using Complex FFTs
169(2)
6.12 ZIF Receivers and DC Offsets
171(1)
6.12.1 System Gain with Dissimilar Input and Output Impedances
171(1)
6.13 Summary
172(3)
References
173(2)
CHAPTER 7 Moving Beyond Production Testing 175(18)
7.1 Introduction
175(1)
7.2 Parallel Testing of Digital and Mixed-Signal Devices
175(1)
7.3 Parallel Testing of RF Devices
175(3)
7.4 Parallel Testing of RF SOC Devices
178(1)
7.5 True Parallel RF Testing
179(1)
7.6 Pseudoparallel RF Testing
180(2)
7.7 Alternative Parallel RF Testing Methods
182(2)
7.8 Guidelines for Choosing an RF Testing Method
184(1)
7.9 Interleaving Technique
185(1)
7.10 DSP Threading
186(1)
7.11 True Parallel RF Testing Cost-of-Test Advantages and Disadvantages
187(1)
7.12 Pseudoparallel RF Testing Cost-of-Test Advantages and Disadvantages
188(1)
7.13 Introduction to Concurrent Testing
189(1)
7.14 Design for Test
190(1)
7.15 Summary
191(2)
References
192(1)
CHAPTER 8 Production Noise Measurements 193(32)
8.1 Introduction to Noise
193(6)
8.1.1 Power Spectral Density
193(1)
8.1.2 Types of Noise
194(4)
8.1.3 Noise Floor
198(1)
8.2 Noise Figure
199(14)
8.2.1 Noise-Figure Definition
199(2)
8.2.2 Noise Power Density
201(1)
8.2.3 Noise Sources
202(1)
8.2.4 Noise Temperature and Effective Noise Temperature
202(1)
8.2.5 Excess Noise Ratio
203(1)
8.2.6 Y-Factor
204(1)
8.2.7 Mathematically Calculating Noise Figure
204(1)
8.2.8 Measuring Noise Figure
205(4)
8.2.9 Noise-Figure Measurements on Frequency Translating Devices
209(1)
8.2.10 Calculating Error in Noise-Figure Measurements
210(1)
8.2.11 Equipment Error
211(1)
8.2.12 Mismatch Error
211(1)
8.2.13 Production-Test Fixturing
212(1)
8.2.14 External Interfering Signals
212(1)
8.2.15 Averaging and Bandwidth Considerations
212(1)
8.3 Phase Noise
213(12)
8.3.1 Introduction
213(1)
8.3.2 Phase-Noise Definition
214(2)
8.3.3 Spectral Density-Based Definition of Phase Noise
216(1)
8.3.4 Phase Jitter
216(1)
8.3.5 Thermal Effects on Phase Noise
217(1)
8.3.6 Low-Power Phase-Noise Measurement
217(1)
8.3.7 High-Power Phase-Noise Measurement
217(1)
8.3.8 Trade-offs When Making Phase-Noise Measurements
217(1)
8.3.9 Making Phase-Noise Measurements
218(2)
8.3.10 Measuring Phase Noise with a Spectrum Analyzer
220(1)
8.3.11 Phase-Noise Measurement Example
220(2)
8.3.12 Phase Noise of Fast-Switching RF Signal Sources
222(1)
References
222(3)
Appendix A: Power and Voltage Conversions 225(4)
Appendix B: RF Coaxial Connectors 229(4)
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 233(4)
List of Numerical Prefixes 237(2)
About the Authors 239(2)
Index 241

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