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9780849323461

Resistance Welding : Fundamentals and Applications

by ;
  • ISBN13:

    9780849323461

  • ISBN10:

    0849323460

  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2005-12-20
  • Publisher: CRC Press
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Summary

This book comprehensively examines every aspect of resistance welding, from metallurgy and fundamental physical processes, such as electrothermal processes and discontinuities, to mechanical testing, process monitoring and control, weld quality and inspection, expulsion, and numerical simulation. The authors emphasize statistical design, analysis, and inference in resistance welding research, enabling readers to conduct their own investigations. They present state-of-the-art research results from their own studies as well as from other leading experts, and the text's many examples are derived from real experiments. Case studies and nearly 300 figures illustrate the concepts.

Table of Contents

Welding Metallurgy
Solidification in Resistance Spot Welding
1(3)
Phase Transformations in RSW
4(10)
Transformations in Steels
6(2)
Continuous Cooling of Plain Carbon Steels
8(1)
Transformations in the HAZ of a Steel Weld
9(1)
Structures of a Steel Weld and an Aluminum Weld
10(4)
Cracking
14(5)
Solidification Cracking
14(1)
Liquation Cracking
15(1)
References
16(3)
Electrothermal Processes of Welding
Introduction
19(1)
Electrical Characteristics of Resistance Welding
20(7)
Bulk Resistance
20(1)
Contact Resistance
21(3)
Total Resistance
24(2)
Shunting
26(1)
Thermal Characteristics of Resistance Welding
27(2)
Heat Balance
29(12)
The Law of Thermal Similarity
30(1)
Heat Balance
31(2)
Modified Heat Balance Theory
33(6)
Experimental Verification
39(2)
Electrode Life
41(10)
Experiment
43(1)
Rapid Electrode Life Determination
43(1)
Electrode Life Tests
44(6)
Relations between 60 Weld Electrodes and Electrode Life
50(1)
Lobe Diagrams
51(10)
Current Profiles
53(1)
Constant Current
53(1)
Half-Sine Current Profile
53(3)
Sinusoidal Current Profile
56(1)
Effects of the Current Profiles
56(3)
References
59(2)
Weld Discontinuities
Classification of Discontinuities
61(12)
External Discontinuities
61(9)
Internal Discontinuities
70(3)
Void Formation in Weld Nuggets
73(6)
Gas Bubbles
74(4)
Effect of Volume Shrinkage
78(1)
Cracking in Welding AA6111 Alloys
79(2)
Cracking in Welding AA5754 Alloys
81(24)
Liquation Cracking in Aluminum Alloys
83(5)
Mechanisms of Cracking
88(1)
Metallurgical Effect
88(2)
Thermomechanical Effects
90(1)
Thermal Stress during Heating
91(2)
Thermal Stress during Cooling
93(2)
Influence of Other Factors
95(1)
Cracking Suppression
96(1)
Effect of Specimen Width and Electrode Geometry
96(1)
Effect of Welding Sequence
97(1)
Effect of Washer Clamping
98(1)
Effect of Current Shunting
98(5)
References
103(2)
Mechanical Testing
Introduction
105(3)
Shop Floor Practices
108(3)
Chisel Test
108(1)
Peel (Roller) Test
108(2)
Bend Test
110(1)
Instrumented Tests
111(32)
Static Tests
111(1)
Tension Test
112(2)
Tension-Shear Test
114(9)
Dynamic Tests
123(1)
Fatigue Test
124(5)
Impact Test
129(3)
A New Impact Tester
132(8)
Torsion Test
140(1)
Twisting
140(1)
Torsional Shear Test
141(1)
References
141(2)
Resistance Welding Process Monitoring and Control
Introduction
143(2)
Data Acquisition
145(2)
Process Monitoring
147(44)
Signals Commonly Monitored during Welding
147(2)
Electric Voltage
149(1)
Electric Current
150(1)
Dynamic Resistance
151(1)
Electrode Displacement
151(3)
Electrode Force
154(3)
Acoustic Emission
157(1)
Pneumatic Pressure Fluctuation
157(2)
Adaptive Noise Cancellation
159(2)
Relationship between Monitored Signals and Welding Processes
161(1)
Effects of Process Conditions
162(2)
Fault Identification
164(1)
Expulsion Detection
165(2)
Preweld Fault Condition Determination
167(7)
Lobe Diagrams
174(2)
Constant-Power Density
176(1)
Hypothesis
177(1)
Algorithm
177(1)
Algorithm Implementation
178(2)
Gain Scheduling
180(1)
Experimental Results
180(2)
Artificial Neural Network Modeling
182(3)
A Case Study of Using ANN for RSW Quality Control
185(4)
References
189(2)
Weld Quality and Inspection
Weld Quality Attributes
191(16)
Weld Attributes
191(1)
Weld Attributes
192(1)
Weld Performance
193(1)
Process Characteristics
193(1)
Weld Quality Requirements
194(2)
Relations between Weld Attributes and Strength
196(11)
Destructive Evaluation
207(4)
Peel Test
208(1)
Chisel Test
208(1)
Metallographic Test
208(3)
Nondestructive Evaluation
211(17)
Ultrasonic B-Scan
212(2)
Examining Various Welds Using the B-Scan System
214(4)
Identification of Cold Welds
218(4)
Relationship between Weld Attributes and Weld Strength
222(2)
References
224(4)
Expulsion in Resistance Spot Welding
Influence of Expulsion on Spot Weld Quality
228(5)
Expulsion Process and Detection
233(2)
Expulsion Prediction and Prevention
235(21)
Geometry Comparison Model
236(1)
Force Balance Model
237(1)
The Principle
237(1)
Evaluation of Effective Electrode Force
238(3)
Pressures and Forces in the Liquid Nugget
241(9)
Statistical Modeling
250(2)
Modeling Procedure
252(2)
Statistical Analysis
254(1)
Summary
255(1)
Examples
256(27)
Application of the Force-Balance Model
256(1)
Calculation of Pressures and Forces
256(5)
Experimental Verification
261(1)
Perspective Applications
262(1)
Examples of the Use of the Statistical Model
263(1)
Experiments
263(3)
Discussion
266(13)
References
279(4)
Influence of Mechanical Characteristics of Welding Machines
Introduction
283(1)
Mechanical Characteristics of Typical Spot Welders
284(6)
Influence of Machine Stiffness
290(10)
Effect on Electrode Force
290(2)
Effect on Electrode Displacement
292(1)
Effect on Electrode Touching Behavior
292(1)
Effect on Weld Formation
293(1)
Expulsion
293(1)
Weld Strength
294(1)
Effect on Electrode Alignment
294(1)
Stiffness and Damping Ratio Estimation
295(5)
Influence of Friction
300(5)
Effect on Electrode Force
302(1)
Effect on Electrode Displacement
302(1)
Effect on Microstructure
303(1)
Effect on Tensile-Shear Strength
304(1)
Influence of Moving Mass
305(6)
A Dynamic Force Analysis
306(3)
Effect on Weld Quality
309(2)
Follow-Up in a Welding Cycle
311(9)
Thermal Expansion
311(1)
Effect of a Pneumatic Cylinder
312(1)
Theoretical Analysis
313(4)
Experiment Results
317(3)
Squeeze Time and Hold Time Measurement
320(3)
Other Factors
323(10)
Electrode Alignment and Workpiece Stack-Up
323(4)
Electrode Force
327(1)
Materials
327(3)
References
330(3)
Numerical Simulation in Resistance Spot Welding
Introduction
333(6)
Comparison between the Finite Difference and Finite Element Methods
334(1)
Discretization
334(1)
Geometry
335(1)
Formulation
336(1)
Accuracy and Others
336(1)
Methods of RSW Process Simulation
336(3)
Coupled Electrical--Thermal--Mechanical Analysis
339(8)
A General (Three-Dimensional) Finite Element Model
339(1)
Formulation of Electric Process
340(1)
Formulation of Heat Transfer Process
341(1)
Boundary Conditions
341(1)
Formulation of Thermomechanical Analysis
342(1)
Simulation of Melting and Solidification
342(1)
Finite Element Formulation
343(1)
Two-Dimensional Finite Element Modeling
344(1)
Formulation for Electric Analysis
344(1)
Formulation of Thermal Analysis
345(1)
Finite Element Formulation
345(1)
Axisymmetric Problems
346(1)
Simulation of Contact Properties and Contact Area
347(4)
Simulation of Other Factors
351(2)
Effect of Zinc Coating
351(1)
Effect of Electric Current Profile
352(1)
Modeling of Microstructure Evolution
353(7)
Effect of Cooling Rate
354(1)
Microstructure Evolution in the Heat-Affected Zone
354(1)
Simulation of Microstructure of a Nugget
355(3)
An Example of Simulating Microstructure Evolution in a Spot Weldment
358(2)
Examples of Numerical Simulation of RSW Processes
360(9)
Case Study I: Effect of Electrode Face Geometry
360(1)
Case Study II: Differences between Using Coupled and Uncoupled Algorithms
360(2)
Case Study III: Effect of Electrode Axial Misalignment
362(2)
Case Study IV: Effect of Angular Misalignment of Domed Electrodes
364(3)
References
367(2)
Statistical Design, Analysis, and Inference in Resistance Welding Research
Introduction
369(1)
Basic Concepts and Procedures
370(3)
Data Collection
371(1)
Statistical Modeling and Data Analysis
371(1)
Inference and Decision Making
372(1)
Experiments with Continuous Response
373(28)
Statistical Design
374(1)
Factorial Designs
374(1)
Orthogonal Arrays
374(1)
Second-Order Designs
375(1)
Robust Parameter Designs
375(1)
The Use of Blocks
376(1)
Analysis and Modeling
376(1)
Use of Graphs
376(1)
Multiple Regression Model
377(3)
Residual Analysis
380(1)
Location-Dispersion Modeling for Variance Reduction
380(1)
Inference and Decision Making
381(1)
Factor Screening
381(1)
Treatment Comparison
382(3)
Combination of Experiments
385(2)
Response Surface Exploration
387(1)
Variance Reduction
388(2)
Two-Stage Sliding-Level Experiments
390(1)
Experiment Design
391(1)
Analysis and Modeling
392(2)
Analysis of Current Range
394(3)
Analysis of Button Size
397(2)
Inference and Decision Making
399(2)
Experiments with Categorical Responses
401(10)
Experiment Design
401(1)
Analysis and Modeling
402(1)
Inference and Decision Making
402(1)
Statistical Analysis
403(1)
Coding System and Transformations
404(2)
Use of Pseudodata
406(1)
Analysis and Results
406(5)
Inference and Decision Making
411(1)
Computer Simulation Experiments
411(10)
Experiment Design
412(1)
Analysis and Modeling
413(1)
Planning of Numerical Experiments
414(3)
Results and Inference
417(4)
Summary
421(4)
References
421(4)
Index 425

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