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Elizabeth C. Zsiga is Professor in the Department of Linguistics at Georgetown University, where she has been a faculty member since 1994, teaching phonology and phonetics to both graduate and undergraduate students, with concentrations in theoretical, applied, and socio-linguistics. She has been published in numerous linguistics journals and books. Her research describes the sound systems of diverse languages including English, Igbo, Korean, Russian, Setswana, Serbian, and Thai.
1 The Vocal Tract 1
1.1 Seeing the vocal tract: tools for speech research 2
1.2 Parts of the vocal tract 5
1.2.1 The sub-laryngeal vocal tract 5
1.2.2 The larynx 7
1.2.3 The supra-laryngeal vocal tract 9
Chapter summary 11
Further reading 11
Review exercises 12
Further analysis and discussion 13
Go online 13
References 13
2 Basics of Articulation: Manner and Place in English 14
2.1 The dance of the articulators 15
2.2 Phonetic transcription 16
2.3 The building blocks of speech 20
2.3.1 Airstream, larynx, and velum 20
2.3.2 Manner of articulation 21
2.3.3 Place of articulation for consonants 24
2.3.4 Vowels 26
Chapter summary 29
Further reading 29
Review exercises 30
Further analysis and discussion 32
Go online 32
3 A Tour of the Consonants 33
3.1 Exotic sounds and the phonetic environment 34
3.2 Pulmonic consonants 37
3.2.1 Stops, nasals, and fricatives 37
3.2.2 Laterals, trills, taps, and other approximants 42
3.2.3 Contour and complex segments 44
3.3 Non-pulmonic consonants 45
3.3.1 Implosives 45
3.3.2 Ejectives 46
3.3.3 Clicks 47
3.4 Positional variation in English 48
3.4.1 Change in laryngeal configuration 48
3.4.2 Change in place 49
3.4.3 Change in manner 50
3.4.4 Other changes 50
Chapter summary 51
Further reading 52
Review exercises 52
Further analysis and discussion 53
Go online 54
References 54
4 A Map of the Vowels 55
4.1 The landscape 56
4.2 Cardinal vowels 57
4.3 Building inventories: dimensions of vowel quality 59
4.3.1 Height and backness 59
4.3.2 Tense/lax 59
4.3.3 Rounding 61
4.3.4 Central vowels 62
4.3.5 Contrasts among the low vowels 64
4.4 Nasality and voice quality 66
4.5 Length and diphthongs 67
4.6 Tone 68
4.7 Positional variants of the vowels of English 70
Chapter summary 71
Further reading 71
Review exercises 72
Further analysis and discussion 73
Further research 74
References 74
5 Anatomy, Physiology, and Gestural Coordination 76
5.1 Anatomy and physiology of respiration 77
5.2 Anatomy and physiology of the larynx 79
5.3 Anatomy of the supralaryngeal vocal tract 85
5.3.1 The jaw 85
5.3.2 The tongue 86
5.3.3 The pharynx and velum 88
5.3.4 The lips 88
5.4 Coordination of gestures 89
5.5 Palatography 91
Chapter summary 94
Further reading 95
Review exercises 96
Further analysis and discussion 97
Go online 98
6 The Physics of Sound: Pendulums, Pebbles, and Waves 99
6.1 What is sound? 100
6.2 Simple harmonic motion: a pendulum and a tuning fork 102
6.3 Adding sinuosoids: complex waves 105
6.4 Sound propagation 108
6.5 Decibels 110
6.6 Resonance 111
6.7 The vocal tract as a sound-producing device: source-filter theory 114
Chapter summary 116
Further reading 116
Review exercises 117
Further analysis and discussion 118
Go online 118
7 Looking at Speech: Waveforms, Spectra, and
Spectrograms 119
7.1 Pre-digital speech 120
7.2 Digitization 122
7.2.1 Sampling 122
7.2.2 Quantization 125
7.2.3 Digital recording 126
7.3 Looking at waveforms 129
7.4 Spectra 131
7.4.1 Spectrum of the glottal source 131
7.4.2 Spectrum of a noise source 134
7.4.3 Spectra of vowels 135
7.5 Spectrograms 137
Chapter summary 142
Further reading 143
Review exercises 144
Further analysis and discussion 144
Go online 148
References 148
8 Speech Analysis: Under the Hood 149
8.1 Building sounds up 150
8.1.1 Sinusoids as circular motion 150
8.1.2 Harmonics: standing waves in a string 153
8.1.3 Formants: resonances of a tube of air 156
8.1.4 Calculating resonances for other vocal tract
configurations 159
8.2 Breaking sounds down 160
8.2.1 RMS amplitude 161
8.2.2 Autocorrelation pitch analysis 161
8.2.3 Fourier analysis 165
8.2.4 Linear predictive coding 167
Chapter summary 169
Further reading 170
Review exercises 170
Further analysis and discussion 171
Go online 172
References 172
9 Hearing and Speech Perception 173
9.1 Anatomy and physiology of the ear 174
9.2 Neuro-anatomy 181
9.2.1 Studying the brain 181
9.2.2 Primary auditory pathways 183
9.3 Speech perception 186
9.3.1 Non-linearity 186
9.3.2 Variability and invariance 187
9.3.3 Cue integration 190
9.3.4 Top-down processing 192
9.3.5 Units of perception 192
Chapter summary 194
Further reading 195
Review exercises 195
Further analysis and discussion 196
Go online 197
References 197
10 Phonology 1: Abstraction, Contrast, Predictability 198
10.1 The necessity of abstraction 199
10.2 Contrast and predictability: phonemes and allophones 203
10.2.1 Defining the phoneme 203
10.2.2 Phonemic analysis 207
10.3 Some complicating factors 211
10.3.1 Is one allophone always basic? 211
10.3.2 Phonetic similarity and complementary distribution 212
10.3.3 Free variation 213
10.3.4 Positional neutralization 214
10.4 Biuniqueness, Behaviorism, and the decline of phonemic analysis 214
Chapter summary 216
Further reading 216
Review exercises 216
Further analysis and discussion 217
Further research 219
Go online 219
References 219
11 Phonotactics and Alternations 221
11.1 Phonotactic constraints 222
11.1.1 Actual words and possible words 222
11.1.2 Absolute and statistical generalizations 223
11.1.3 Borrowings 224
11.2 Analyzing alternations 225
11.3 Alternations: what to expect 232
11.3.1 Local assimilation 232
11.3.2 Long-distance assimilation 236
11.3.3 Coalescence 238
11.3.4 Dissimilation 238
11.3.5 Lenition and fortition 240
11.3.6 Epenthesis 241
11.3.7 Deletion 243
11.3.8 Lengthening and shortening 244
11.3.9 Metathesis 244
11.3.10 Morphological interactions 245
Chapter summary 246
Further reading 246
Review exercises 246
Further analysis and discussion 248
Go online 250
References 250
12 What Is Possible Language?: Distinctive Features 253
12.1 Introduction 254
12.1.1 Phonological universals 254
12.1.2 Why bother with formalism? 255
12.1.3 Some hypotheses 256
12.2 Distinctive features 257
12.2.1 Background 257
12.2.2 Major class and manner features 258
12.2.3 Laryngeal features 262
12.2.4 Major place features 262
12.2.5 Subsidiary place distinctions 265
12.2.6 Features for vowels 267
12.3 How have our hypotheses fared? 270
Chapter summary 271
Further reading 272
Review exercises 272
Further analysis and discussion 272
Further research 274
Go online 274
References 274
13 Rules and Derivations in Generative Grammar 275
13.1 Generative grammars 276
13.2 Underlying representations 277
13.3 Writing rules 279
13.3.1 SPE notation 279
13.3.2 Derivations 280
13.3.3 Rule complexity 281
13.4 Autosegmental representations and feature geometry 284
13.4.1 Autosegmental representations for tone 284
13.4.2 Autosegmental representations for other features 289
13.4.3 Feature geometry 293
13.5 How have our hypotheses fared? 298
Chapter summary 299
Further reading 299
Review exercises 300
Further analysis and discussion 300
Further research 303
Go online 303
References 303
14 Constraint-based Phonology 304
14.1 Constraints and rules in linguistic theory 305
14.2 The basics of Optimality Theory 309
14.2.1 Con 309
14.2.2 Gen 312
14.2.3 Eval 312
14.3 Example problem solving in OT 314
14.3.1 Vowel sequences in three languages 314
14.3.2 Nasal place assimilation 316
14.3.3 Japanese /tu/ 319
14.4 Challenges and directions for future research 322
Chapter summary 324
Further reading 325
Review exercises 325
Further analysis and discussion 325
Further research 329
Go online 329
References 329
15 Syllables and Prosodic Domains 330
15.1 Syllables 331
15.1.1 Does phonology need syllables? 331
15.1.2 Syllables and sonority 333
15.1.3 Syllable structure constraints 1: onsets and codas 335
15.1.4 Syllables structure constraints 2: moras and syllable weight 339
15.2 The prosodic hierarchy 341
15.5.1 The phonological word 342
15.2.2 The phonological phrase 346
Chapter summary 348
Further reading 348
Review exercises 349
Further analysis and discussion 350
Further research 000
References 351
16 Stress 353
16.1 What is linguistic stress? 354
16.2 Cross-linguistic typology 356
16.3 A feature for stress? 360
16.4 Metrical structure 360
16.5 Stress in English 365
16.5.1 Overview 365
16.5.2 Nouns 366
16.5.3 Verbs and adjectives 367
16.5.4 Affixes and lexical phonology 368
Chapter summary 370
Further reading 371
Review exercises 371
Further analysis and discussion 372
Further research 374
Go online 374
References 374
17 Tone and Intonation 375
17.1 Tone 376
17.1.1 Tone contrasts 376
17.1.2 Tonal representations 380
17.1.3 Tone alternations: the evidence from Africa and the Americas 383
17.1.4 Tone alternations: the evidence from Asia 388
17.2 Intonation 392
17.2.1 What is intonation? 392
17.2.2 Intonational representations 393
Chapter summary 397
Further reading 397
Review exercises 398
Further analysis and discussion 399
Further research 399
Go online 400
References 400
18 Diachronic Change 401
18.1 Languages change 402
18.1.1 English in the last millennium 402
18.1.2 Types of sound change 405
18.1.3 Causes and effects 407
18.2 Historical reconstruction 408
18.2.1 Proto-Indo-European 408
18.2.2 Grimm’s Law, Verner’s Law and the Neo-grammarian
hypothesis 411
18.2.3 Limits to the tree model 414
18.3 History of the sounds of English 415
18.3.1 Old English 415
18.3.2 Middle English 417
18.3.3 Modern English 419
Chapter summary 422
Further reading 422
Review exercises 423
Further analysis and discussion 423
Further research 423
Go online 425
References 425
19 Variation 426
19.1 Variation by place 428
19.1.1 What is a dialect? 428
19.1.2 Dialects of North American English 429
19.1.3 Dialects of British English 433
19.1.4 Australia, New Zealand, South Africa 434
19.1.5 World Englishes 435
19.1.6 Place and identity 437
19.2 Other sources of variation 437
19.2.1 Register 437
19.2.2 Socio-economic distinctions 438
19.2.3 Ethnicity 439
19.2.4 Gender, age, sexuality 440
19.2.5 Variation and identity 441
19.3 Formalizing variation 441
19.3.1 Traditional sociolinguistic analyses 442
19.3.2 Traditional phonological analyses 443
19.3.3 Stochastic grammars 443
Chapter summary 444
Further reading 445
Review exercises 445
Further analysis and discussion 446
Further research 446
Go online 446
References 446
20 Acquisition and Learning 447
20.1 Language Acquisition and Language Learning 448
20.2 Child language acquisition: the data 448
20.2.1 Tools 448
20.2.2 Perception in the first year 449
20.2.3 Child language production 452
20.3 Theories of L1 acquisition 454
20.3.1 Innateness vs. environmental effects 454
20.3.2 Acquiring language-specific contrasts 455
20.4 L2 Learning 457
20.4.1 Tools 457
20.4.2 L2 perception 458
20.4.3 L2 production 459
20.5 Acquisition, Learning, and Linguistic Theory 461
Chapter summary 462
Further reading 462
Review exercises 462
Further analysis and discussion 464
Further research 464
Go online 464
References 464
Index 465
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