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This outstanding new volume is a compendium of reference material which will cover most of the relevant and state-of-art approaches in the field of water treatment, focusing on technological advances for water treatment in four categories: advanced oxidation technologies, nanoparticles for water treatment, membrane separations, and other emerging technologies or processes.
Apart from this perspective, fundamental discussions on a wide variety of pollutants have also been included, such as acidic wastewater treatment, metallurgical wastewater, textile wastewater as well as groundwater. The editors have not only covered a wide range of water treatment techniques, but also focus on their applications, offering a holistic perspective on water treatment in general.
Covering all of the latest advances, innovations, and developments in practical applications for sustainable water treatment, this volume represents the most comprehensive, up-to-date coverage of the issues of the day and state of the art. Whether for the veteran engineer or scientist or a student, this volume is a must-have for any library.
Sustainable Water Treatment: Advances and Interventions covers:
Siddhartha Moulik, PhD, received his PhD from CSIR-Indian Institute Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India. With years of experience, he has worked on projects with some of the most prestigious companies and laboratories in the industry. He has published 23 articles in journals of international repute, filed three patents, and published 15 book chapters. He is also the recipient of 15 prestigious national awards, and he has published two books with Scrivener Publishing.
Aditi Mullick, PhD, received her PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India. She has published ten articles in journals of international repute, filed two patents, and published one book thus far, also with Scrivener Publishing. She is also the recipient of seven prestigious national awards and fellowships.
Anirban Roy, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at BITS Pilani Goa campus. He has published 20 articles in journals of international repute, filed eight patents, and published one book thus far. He also has ample industrial experience, as well as academic experience, in the field.
Introduction xix
Section I: Advanced Oxidation Processes 1
1 Advanced Oxidation Processes: Fundamental, Technologies, Applications and Recent Advances 3
Akshat Khandelwal and Saroj Sundar Baral
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Background and Global Trend of Advanced Oxidation Process 5
1.3 Advanced Oxidation Systems 8
1.3.1 Ozone-Based AOP 9
1.3.2 UV/H2O2 10
1.3.3 Radiation 10
1.3.4 Fenton Reaction 12
1.3.5 Photocatalytic 13
1.3.6 Electrochemical Oxidation 14
1.4 Comparison and Challenges of AOP Technologies 15
1.5 Conclusion and Perspective 19
References 20
2 A Historical Approach for Integration of Cavitation Technology with Conventional Wastewater Treatment Processes 27
Bhaskar Bethi, G. B. Radhika, Shirish H. Sonawane, Shrikant Barkade and Ravindra Gaikwad
2.1 Introduction to Cavitation for Wastewater Treatment 28
2.1.1 Mechanistic Aspects of Ultrasound Cavitation 28
2.1.2 Mechanistic Aspects of Hydrodynamic Cavitation 29
2.2 Importance of Integrating Water Treatment Technology in Present Scenario 30
2.3 Integration Ultrasound Cavitation (UC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 31
2.3.1 Sonosorption (UC+ Adsorption) 32
2.3.2 Son-Chemical Oxidation (UC + Chemical Oxidation) 38
2.3.3 UC+Filtration 39
2.4 Integration of Hydrodynamic Cavitation (HC) with Conventional Treatment Techniques 40
2.4.1 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Adsorption 40
2.4.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Biological Oxidation 42
2.4.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation + Chemical Treatment 43
2.5 Scale-Up Issues with Ultrasound Cavitation Process 50
2.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives: Hydrodynamic Cavitation as a Future Technology 50
Acknowledgements 51
References 51
3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation: Route to Greener Technology for Wastewater Treatment 57
Anupam Mukherjee, Ravi Teja, Aditi Mullick, Subhankar Roy, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy
3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 Cavitation: General Perspective 72
3.2.1 Phase Transition 72
3.2.2 Types of Cavitation 73
3.2.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 74
3.2.4 Bubble Dynamics Model 80
3.2.4.1 Rayleigh-Plesset Equation 80
3.2.4.2 Bubble Contents 80
3.2.4.3 Nonequilibrium Effects 84
3.2.5 Physio-Chemical Effects 84
3.2.5.1 Thermodynamic Effects 85
3.2.5.2 Mechanical Effects 86
3.2.5.3 Chemical Effects 87
3.2.5.4 Biological Effects 88
3.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactors 88
3.3.1 Liquid Whistle Reactors 89
3.3.2 High-Speed Homogenizers 89
3.3.3 Micro-Fluidizers 90
3.3.4 High-Pressure Homogenizers 90
3.3.5 Orifice Plates Setup 91
3.3.5.1 Effect of the Ratio of Total Perimeter to Total Flow Area 92
3.3.5.2 Effect of Flow Area to the Cross-Sectional Area of the Pipe 92
3.3.6 Venture Device Setup 92
3.3.6.1 Effect of Divergence Angle 93
3.3.6.2 Effect of the Ratio of Throat Diameter/Height to Length 94
3.3.7 Vortex-Based HC Reactor 94
3.4 Effect of Operating Parameters of HC 94
3.4.1 Effect of Inlet Pressure 94
3.4.2 Effect of Temperature 95
3.4.3 Effect of Initial Concentration of Pollutant 96
3.4.4 Effect of Treatment Time 96
3.4.5 Effect of pH 97
3.5 Toxicity Assessment 97
3.6 Techno-Economic Feasibility 100
3.7 Applications 101
3.8 Conclusions and Thoughts About the Future 102
3.9 Acknowledgement 103
3.10 Disclosure 103
Nomenclature 103
References 105
4 Recent Trends in Ozonation Technology: Theory and Application 117
Anupam Mukherjee, Dror Avisar and Anirban Roy
4.1 Introduction 118
4.2 Fundamentals of Mass Transfer 119
4.3 Mass Transfer of Ozone in Water 125
4.3.1 Solubility of Ozone in Water 126
4.3.1.1 Model for Determining the True Solubility Concentration 126
4.3.2 Mass Transfer Model of Ozone in Water 128
4.3.3 Henry and Volumetric Mass Transfer Coefficient Determination 133
4.3.3.1 Microscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 134
4.3.3.2 Macroscopic Ozone Balance in the Gas Phase 134
4.3.3.3 Ozone Balance at Constant Ozone Concentrations 136
4.3.4 Single Bubble Model of Mass Transfer 137
4.3.5 Decomposition of Ozone in Water 144
4.3.6 Ozone Contactors and Energy Requirement 146
4.4 Factors Affecting Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Bubble Column Reactor 147
4.4.1 Fluid Dynamics and Regime Analysis 148
4.4.2 Gas Holdup 149
4.4.3 Bubble Characteristics 149
4.4.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient 150
4.5 Application 150
4.6 Conclusion and Thoughts About the Future 158
Acknowledgement 158
Nomenclature 158
References 161
Section II: Nanoparticle-Based Treatment 171
5 Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials for Water Treatment: Application in Fixed Bed Column Filter 173
Chhaya, Dibyanshu, Sneha Singh and Trishikhi Raychoudhury
5.1 Introduction 174
5.2 Target Contaminants: Performance of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials 178
5.2.1 Inorganic Contaminants 178
5.2.1.1 Heavy Metals 178
5.2.1.2 Nonmetallic Contaminant 195
5.2.2 Organic Contaminant 197
5.2.2.1 Organic Dyes 197
5.2.2.2 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 202
5.2.2.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) 203
5.2.2.4 Miscellaneous Aromatic Pollutant 221
5.2.3 Emerging Contaminants 222
5.2.3.1 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 222
5.2.3.2 Miscellaneous Compounds 225
5.3 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter for Water Treatment 226
5.3.1 Fate and Transport Process of Contaminants in the Fixed Bed Column Filter 226
5.3.2 Application of Nanoparticles and Nanocomposite Materials in Fixed Bed Column Filter 228
References 231
6 Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment: Potential and Barriers in Industrialization 245
Snehasis Bhakta
6.1 Introduction 245
6.2 Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 248
6.2.1 Nanotechnological Processes for Wastewater Treatment 249
6.2.1.1 Nanofiltration 249
6.2.1.2 Adsorption 249
6.2.1.3 Photocatalysis 249
6.2.1.4 Disinfection 250
6.2.2 Different Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment 250
6.2.2.1 Zerovalent Metal Nanoparticles 250
6.2.2.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 251
6.2.2.3 Other Nanoparticles 252
6.3 Smart Nanomaterials: Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 253
6.3.1 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIP) 253
6.3.2 Application of MIP-Based Nanomaterials in Wastewater Treatment 254
6.3.2.1 Recognition of Pollutants 254
6.3.2.2 Removal of Pollutants 255
6.3.2.3 Catalytic Degradation of Organic Molecules 256
6.3.3 Barriers in Industrialization 257
6.4 Cheap Alternative Nanomaterials 257
6.4.1 Nanoclay for Wastewater Treatment 258
6.4.1.1 Water Filtration by Nanoclays 258
6.4.1.2 Water Treatment by Hybrid Gel 258
6.4.1.3 Nanosponges 259
6.4.2 Nanocellulose for Wastewater Treatment 259
6.4.2.1 Adsorption of Heavy Metals by Nanocellulose 260
6.4.2.2 Adsorption of Dyes by Nanocellulose 260
6.4.2.3 Barriers in Industrialization 260
6.5 Toxicity Associated with Nanotechnology in Wastewater Treatment 261
6.6 Barriers in Industrialization 262
6.7 Future Aspect and Conclusions 263
References 264
Section III: Membrane-Based Treatment 271
7 Microbial Fuel Cell Technology for Wastewater Treatment 273
Nilesh Vijay Rane, Alka Kumari, Chandrakant Holkar, Dipak V. Pinjari and Aniruddha B. Pandit
7.1 Introduction 274
7.2 Microbial Fuel Cell 276
7.2.1 Working Principle 276
7.2.2 Role of MFC Components 279
7.2.3 Performance Indicator of MFC 280
7.2.4 Design Parameters 282
7.2.5 Types of Microbial Fuel Cell 283
7.3 Recent Development in MFC Component 286
7.3.1 Recent Development in Cathode Used in MFC 286
7.3.2 Recent Development in Anode Used in MFC 291
7.3.3 Recent Developments in Membranes Used in MFC 295
7.4 MFC for Wastewater Treatment 298
7.4.1 Advantages of MFC Over Conventional Treatment 299
7.4.2 Challenges in the Wastewater Treatment Using MFC 300
7.5 Different Ways for Increasing the Throughput of MFC 301
7.5.1 Big Reactor Size 301
7.5.2 Stacking 302
7.5.3 Cathode 303
7.5.4 Anode 303
7.5.5 Separating Material 304
7.5.6 Harnessing Output Energy 304
7.5.7 Increasing Long-Term Stability 305
7.5.8 Coupling of MFC with Other Techniques 305
7.6 Different Case Studies Indicating Commercial Use of MFC 306
7.7 Other Applications of MFC 310
7.8 Conclusions and Recommendations (Future Work) 311
References 313
8 Ceramic Membranes in Water Treatment: Potential and Challenges for Technology Development 325
Debarati Mukherjee and Sourja Ghosh
8.1 Introduction 326
8.1.1 Background and Current State-of-the-Art 326
8.1.2 Ceramic Membranes: An Approach to Trade-Off the Bridge Between Theoretical Research and Industrial Applications 327
8.1.3 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 329
8.1.4 Domestic Wastewater Treatment 341
8.2 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater and Drinking Water 348
8.2.1 Arsenic Contaminated Water 348
8.2.2 Treatment of Fluoride Contaminated Water 350
8.2.3 Treatment of Nitrate Contaminated Water 351
8.2.4 Treatment of Water Spiked with Emerging Contaminants 352
8.2.5 Treatment of Water Contaminated with Pathogens 354
8.3 Classification of Filtration Based on Configuration 357
8.3.1 Direct Membrane Filtration 357
8.3.2 Hybrid Approaches 360
8.4 Pilot-Scale Studies 368
8.5 Challenges of Ceramic Membranes 369
8.6 Conclusion and Future Scope of Ceramic Membranes 370
References 371
9 Membrane Distillation for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 383
Sarita Kalla, Rakesh Baghel, Sushant Upadhyaya and Kailash Singh
9.1 Introduction 383
9.2 Membrane Distillation and Its Configurations 384
9.3 Sources of Acidic Effluent 385
9.4 Applications of MD for Acidic Wastewater Treatment 387
9.5 Hybrid MD Process 388
9.6 Implications 395
References 395
10 Demonstration of Long-Term Assessment on Performance of VMD for Textile Wastewater Treatment 401
Rakesh Baghel, Sarita Kalla, Sushant Upadhyaya and S. P. Chaurasia
10.1 Introduction 401
10.2 Transport Mechanism 403
10.3 Impact of Process Variables on Permeate Flux 405
10.4 Long-Term Performance Analysis of VMD 408
10.5 Scale Formation in Long-Term Assessment 411
Conclusion 412
Nomenclature 412
Greek Symbols 413
References 413
Section IV: Emerging Technologies & Processes 415
11 Application of Zero Valent Iron to Removal Chromium and Other Heavy Metals in Metallurgical Wastewater 417
Khac-Uan Do, Thi-Lien Le and Thuy-Lan Nguyen
11.1 Introduction 418
11.1.1 Wastewater Sources from Metallurgical Factories 418
11.1.2 Characteristics of Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 419
11.1.3 Conventional Technologies for Treating Wastewater in Metallurgical Factories 420
11.1.4 Zero Valent Iron for Removing Heavy Metals 422
11.1.5 Objectives of the Study 422
11.2 Materials and Methods 423
11.2.1 Metallurgical Wastewater 423
11.2.2 Preparation of Zero Valent Iron 424
11.2.3 Batch Experiments 424
11.2.4 Analysis Methods 425
11.3 Results and Discussion 428
11.3.1 Effects of pH on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 428
11.3.2 Effects of Feo on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 430
11.3.3 Effects of Contact Time on Hexavalent Chromium Removal 431
11.3.4 Effects of pH on Heavy Metals Removal 432
11.3.5 Effects of PAC on Heavy Metals Removal 433
11.3.6 Effects of PAM on Heavy Metals Removal 434
11.4 Conclusion 435
Acknowledgements 436
References 436
12 Removal of Arsenic and Fluoride from Water Using Novel Technologies 441
Ishita Sarkar, Sankha Chakrabortty, Jayato Nayak and Parimal Pal
12.1 Background Study of Arsenic 442
12.1.1 Source and Existence of Arsenic 442
12.1.2 Effects of Arsenic 443
12.1.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Arsenic in Drinking Water 444
12.2 Background Study of Fluoride 445
12.2.1 Source and Existence of Fluoride 445
12.2.2 Effects of Fluoride 445
12.2.3 Regulation and Permissible Limit of Fluoride in Drinking Water 446
12.3 Technologies Used for Arsenic Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 447
12.3.1 Oxidation Method 447
12.3.2 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 450
12.3.3 Ion-Exchange Method 450
12.3.4 Adsorption Method 451
12.4 Technologies for Fluoride Removal from Contaminated Groundwater 456
12.4.1 Coagulation-Precipitation Method 456
12.4.2 Nalgonda Technique 456
12.4.3 Adsorption Method 458
12.4.4 Ion-Exchange Method 458
12.5 Membrane Technology Used for Arsenic and Fluoride Mitigations 460
12.5.1 Introduction of Membrane Technology 460
12.5.2 Arsenic Removal by Membrane Filtration 462
12.5.2.1 Arsenic Removal by Microfiltration System 462
12.5.2.2 Arsenic Removal by Ultrafiltration System 464
12.5.2.3 Arsenic Removal by Nanofiltration System 466
12.5.2.4 Arsenic Removal by Other Membrane-Based Process 472
12.5.3 Fluoride Removal by Different Membrane Filtration System 475
References 480
13 A Zero Liquid Discharge Strategy with MSF Coupled with Crystallizer 487
Jasneet Kaur Pala, Siddhartha Moulik, Asim K. Ghosh, Reddi Kamesh and Anirban Roy
13.1 Introduction 488
13.2 Minimum Energy Required for Desalination Process 490
13.2.1 Minimum Work Requirement 492
13.2.2 Recovery Ratio 494
13.3 Methodology and Simulation 494
13.3.1 MSF Process Description 494
13.3.2 Crystallizer Process Description 495
13.3.3 Modeling and Simulation 496
13.3.4 Input Parameters 501
13.4 Results and Discussion 504
13.4.1 Comparison of Energy Demand Between Simulated Model and Theoretical Model 504
13.4.2 Impact of Temperature and Flowrate on Thermal Energy 507
13.4.3 Impact on Thermal Energy During MLD and ZLD 507
13.4.4 Crystallization of Salts 511
13.5 Conclusion 511
13.6 Acknowledgment 512
References 512
14 A Critical Review on Prospects and Challenges in “Conceptualization to Technology Transfer” for Nutrient Recovery from Municipal Wastewater 517
Shubham Lanjewar, Birupakshya Mishra, Anupam Mukherjee, Aditi Mullick, Siddhartha Moulik and Anirban Roy
14.1 Introduction 518
14.2 Chemical Processes for Resources Recovery 520
14.2.1 Chemical Precipitation 521
14.2.1.1 Magnesium and Calcium – Phosphorous Precipitation 521
14.2.1.2 Aluminum – Phosphorous Precipitation 522
14.2.1.3 Ferric – Phosphorous Precipitation 523
14.2.2 Adsorption and Ion-Exchange 524
14.3 Biological Processes for Resources Recovery 528
14.3.1 Anammox Process for Nutrients Recovery 529
14.3.2 Algal Methods for Sewage Treatment and Nutrient Recovery 530
14.3.2.1 Nutrients Recovery from Micro-Algae Growth 530
14.3.2.2 Nutrients Recovery from Wetland Plants Growth 533
14.4 Membrane-Based Hybrid Technologies for Nutrients, Energy, and Water Recovery 534
14.4.1 Membrane Based Nutrients Recovery 534
14.4.2 Bio Electrochemical Systems (BES) for Resources Recovery 537
14.4.3 Nutrients Recovery via Osmotic Membrane Bioreactor 544
14.4.4 Economics and Feasibility of Processes 545
14.5 Conclusion 551
Acknowledgements 551
Disclosure 551
References 551
15 Sustainable Desalination: Future Scope in Indian Subcontinent 567
Rudra Rath, Asim K. Ghosh and Anirban Roy
15.1 Introduction 567
15.2 Water Supply and Demand in India 568
15.3 Current Status of Desalination in India 571
15.4 Commercially Available Technologies 572
15.4.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 572
15.4.2 Electrodialysis (ED) 573
15.4.3 Membrane Capacitive Deionization (MCDI) 574
15.4.4 Thermal Desalination 574
15.5 Possible Technological Intervention 576
15.5.1 Solar Desalination 576
15.5.1.1 Solar Stills 577
15.5.1.2 Photovoltaic (PV) Powered Desalination in India 579
15.5.2 Wave Power Desalination 580
15.5.3 Geothermal Desalination 580
15.5.4 Low-Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) 580
15.5.5 Membrane Distillation (MD) 581
15.5.6 Forward Osmosis (FO) 582
15.6 Challenges and Implementation Strategies for Sustainable Use of Desalination Technologies 583
References 584
16 Desalination: Thermodynamic Modeling and Energetics 591
Shubham Lanjewar, Ridhish Kumar, Kunal Roy, Rudra Rath, Anupam Mukherjee and Anirban Roy
16.1 Introduction 592
16.2 Thermodynamics Modeling of Desalination 593
16.2.1 Electrolyte Solutions 594
16.2.2 Generalized Minimum Work of Separation 596
16.2.2.1 Mass Basis 597
16.2.2.2 Mole Basis 598
16.3 Modeling of Major Thermal Desalination Techniques 599
16.3.1 A General Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) Process Configuration for Desalination 601
16.3.1.1 Steady State Process Model of a MED System 601
16.3.1.2 Performance Parameters Analysis 606
16.3.2 A General Process Configuration of Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Desalination 607
16.3.2.1 Steady State Process Model of an MSF System 608
16.3.3 A General Process Configuration of Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) Desalination 612
16.3.3.1 Steady State Process Model of an MVC System 613
16.4 Advantage of RO Above Other Mentioned Technologies 615
16.4.1 Advantages of RO Process 616
16.4.2 Energy Requirement in Desalination by an Evaporation Technique 617
16.4.3 Energy Requirements for Desalination by Reversible RO Process 617
16.4.4 Energy Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 619
16.4.5 Economic Analysis of Different Desalination Techniques 620
16.5 Exergy Analysis of Reverse Osmosis 623
16.5.1 General Exergy Analysis in Desalination and Its Necessity 625
16.5.1.1 Exergy Efficiency and Its Improvement Potential Analysis 628
16.5.2 A Case Study on Reverse Osmosis Based Desalination Unit Reporting Exergy Performance 630
16.6 Conclusion 631
Nomenclature 632
References 636
Index 643
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