Thinking Through Communication : An Introduction to the Study of Human Communication

by Sarah Trenholm

• ISBN13: 9780205289998
• ISBN10: 0205289991
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1998-08-01
• Publisher: Taylor & Francis

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Part I Introduction to Communication	1	(46)
1 The Communication Tradition	1	(18)
In the Time of Aristotle: A Brief History of Communication Study	2	(11)
Studying Rhetoric in Ancient Greece	2	(3)
The Classical Period: Enchanting the Mind by Arguments	5	(4)
Medieval and Renaissance Communication: Truth Armed Against Falsehood	9	(1)
The Modern Period: A Rational Science of Rhetoric	10	(3)
Communication Today: Contemporary Departments of Rhetoric and Communication Theory	13	(2)
Communication: Humanity or Social Science?	14	(1)
What Do Rhetoricians and Communication Scientists Do?	14	(1)
Summary	15	(4)
2 Definitions, Models, and Perspectives	19	(28)
Defining Communication	20	(5)
Definitions: Discovery or Construction?	20	(1)
Deciding What Communication Is	21	(1)
How Broad Is Communication?	21	(2)
Is Communication Intentional?	23	(1)
Is Communication Sender- or Receiver-Based?	23	(1)
Is All Communication Symbolic?	23	(1)
Multiple Definitions: Communication as a Family of Concepts	24	(1)
How Models Help Us Understand Communication	25	(2)
The Forms and Functions of Models	25	(1)
The Drawbacks of Models	26	(1)
It All Depends on Your Point of View: Three Perspectives	27	(13)
Communication as Message Transmission	28	(1)
Elements of a Psychological Model	28	(2)
Improving Faulty Communication	30	(1)
Criticizing the Psychological Perspective	30	(1)
Asking Questions From the Psychological Perspective	31	(1)
Communication as World Building	31	(1)
Elements of a Social Constructionist Model	31	(3)
Improving Our Social Constructions	34	(1)
Criticizing the Social Constructionist Perspective	34	(1)
Asking Questions From the Social Constructionist Perspective	35	(1)
Communication as Patterned Interaction	35	(1)
Elements of a Pragmatic Model	36	(2)
Improving Unhealthy Patterns	38	(1)
Criticizing the Pragmatic Perspective	38	(1)
Asking Questions From the Pragmatic Perspective	39	(1)
Summary and Additional Perspectives	39	(1)
What to Look for When You Look at Communication	40	(2)
Summary	42	(5)
Part II Listening and Language	47	(345)
3 Decoding Messages: Perception, Information Processing and Listening	47	(28)
What Is Perception?	48	(7)
Imposing Order and Meaning on the World	49	(1)
Using Cognitive Schemata	50	(1)
Person Prototypes	50	(2)
Personal Constructs	52	(1)
Scripts	53	(1)
Overcoming Mindlessness	53	(2)
Information Processing: Communicating for Clarity	55	(6)
Steps in Information Processing	55	(1)
Capturing Attention	56	(2)
Controlling Interpretation	58	(1)
Increasing Comprehension	58	(1)
Ensuring Acceptance	59	(1)
Enhancing Retention and Retrieval	60	(1)
Listening: How Receivers Can Improve Decoding	61	(9)
What Is Listening?	62	(1)
Listening and Hearing	62	(1)
Ability and Performance	62	(1)
Ways to Listen	63	(1)
Improving General Listening Performance	64	(1)
Improving Attention	64	(2)
Improving Interpretation	66	(2)
Improving Retention and Retrieval	68	(1)
Active Listening	69	(1)
Styles of Listening	69	(1)
Helpful Listening	69	(1)
Summary	70	(5)
4 Encoding Messages: Spoken Language	75	(38)
What Is Language?	76	(5)
Language Is Symbolic	76	(2)
Language Is a Kind of Knowledge	78	(1)
Language Is Rule-Governed and Productive	78	(1)
Language Affects the Way We See the World	79	(2)
Language Takes Many Forms	81	(1)
The Subsystems of Language	81	(8)
The Sounds of Language	81	(3)
The Words of Language	84	(2)
The Sentences of Language	86	(1)
The Social Context of Language	87	(1)
Speech Acts	87	(1)
Communication and Context	88	(1)
Pragmatic Styles and Structures	89	(6)
Forms of Discourse: Classifying Kinds of Talk	90	(1)
Understanding Conversation	90	(1)
Describing Classroom Interaction	91	(1)
Dimensions of Discourse	92	(1)
Interactive Discourse: Coherence and Structure	92	(1)
Coordinating Conversational Moves	92	(2)
Conversational Closings	94	(1)
Guidelines for Understanding Discourse	94	(1)
Language and Social Identity	95	(7)
Genderlects: When Men's and Women's Talk Differs	95	(1)
The Development of Gender Differences	96	(2)
Adapting to Gender Differences	98	(1)
Language and Cultural Difference	98	(2)
Context Dependence	100	(1)
Verbal Directness	100	(1)
Expressiveness	101	(1)
Formality	101	(1)
Language Choices and Pragmatic Effects	102	(5)
Ambiguity: When Not Making Sense Makes Sense	102	(2)
Immediacy: Up Close and Personal	104	(1)
Abstraction: Creating General Categories	105	(1)
Metaphors We Live By	105	(1)
Improving Language Choices	106	(1)
Summary	107	(6)
5 Encoding Messages: Nonverbal Communication	113	(38)
What Is Nonverbal Communication?	114	(8)
How Can We Know What Nonverbals Mean?	115	(1)
Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication	116	(1)
Nonverbal Communication May Be Unintentional	116	(1)
Nonverbal Communication Consists of Multiple Codes	116	(1)
Nonverbal Communication Is Immediate, Continuous, and Natural	117	(1)
Nonverbal Communication Is Both Universal and Cultural	118	(1)
What Meanings Are Best Conveyed Nonverbally?	118	(1)
Making Initial Judgments	118	(1)
Relational Information	119	(1)
Emotional Expression	119	(1)
Nonverbal Codes and Verbal Messages	120	(2)
The Nonverbal Codes	122	(21)
The Kinesic Code I: Body Movement and Gesture	122	(1)
Emblems	122	(2)
Illustrators	124	(1)
Regulators	124	(1)
Affect Display	124	(1)
Adaptors	125	(1)
The Kinesic Code II: Facial Expression and Eye Behavior	126	(1)
Facial Displays	126	(1)
Eye Behavior	127	(2)
Paralinguistics: Vocal Behavior	129	(1)
Chronemics and Proxemics: Time, Territory, and Space	130	(1)
Time Orientations	131	(2)
Territory and the Use of Space	133	(2)
Spatial Arrangement	135	(2)
Personal Space	137	(1)
Touch	138	(1)
Physical Appearance and Object Language	139	(1)
Body Type	139	(1)
Dress	140	(1)
Object Language	141	(2)
Increasing Nonverbal Skills	143	(2)
Summary	145	(6)
6 Interpersonal Communication	151	(38)
What Is Interpersonal Communication?	152	(4)
Characteristics of Dyadic Communication	152	(1)
Are All Dyads Interpersonal?	153	(1)
Why Do We Build Dyads?	154	(2)
Managing Interpersonal Communication	156	(7)
Balancing Interpersonal Tensions	156	(3)
Avoiding Dysfunctional Patterns	159	(1)
Rigid Role Relations	159	(1)
Disconfirmations	160	(2)
Paradoxes	162	(1)
Spirals	162	(1)
Relational Development: Stages in Intimate Dyads	163	(9)
Paths To and From Intimacy	163	(1)
The Journey Toward Intimacy	163	(4)
The Retreat From Intimacy	167	(2)
Variations in Relational Development	169	(1)
Duck's Relational Dissolution Model	169	(1)
Interpersonal Attraction: Filtering Theory	170	(2)
Increasing Relational Skills	172	(10)
Toward More Effective Self-Disclosure	174	(1)
Responding to Others' Disclosures	175	(3)
Managing Interpersonal Conflict	178	(3)
Rules for Effective Feedback	181	(1)
Becoming a More Responsible Communicator	182	(1)
Summary	183	(6)
7 Group Communication	189	(38)
What Is a Group?	190	(6)
Characteristics of Groups	190	(1)
Group Size: How Big Is a Small Group?	191	(2)
Why Communicate in Groups?	193	(1)
When Are Groups More Effective Than Individuals?	194	(2)
Managing Group Communication	196	(9)
Balancing Group and Individual Needs	196	(1)
Group Socialization Processes	197	(2)
Adapting to Group Pressures	199	(1)
Taking on Task and Maintenance Roles	200	(3)
Combating Groupthink	203	(2)
Group Development: Phases in Problem-Solving Groups	205	(7)
Phase Models: Mapping the Life of a Group	205	(1)
Tuckman's Five-Stage Model	206	(1)
Fisher's Four-Phase Model	207	(2)
Poole's Alternative: A Multiple-Sequence Model	209	(1)
Leadership: How Groups Chose Leaders	209	(1)
What It Takes to Be a Good Leader	211	(1)
How Not to Be Chosen Leader	211	(1)
Strengthening Group Discussion Skills	212	(1)
Creating a Positive Climate	212	(19)
Enhancing Problem Solving	213	(1)
The Standard Agenda	214	(2)
Brainstorming: Increasing Creativity	216	(1)
Nominal Group Technique	217	(1)
Using Special Formats for Public Discussion	218	(1)
The Symposium	218	(1)
The Forum	219	(1)
The Panel Discussion	219	(1)
The Buzz Group	220	(1)
The Role-Playing Group	220	(1)
Becoming a More Responsible Communicator	221	(1)
Summary	222	(5)
8 Public Communication	227	(40)
What Is Public Communication?	228	(4)
Characteristics of Public Communication	228	(2)
Communicating in the Public Sphere	230	(1)
Why Engage in Public Communication?	231	(1)
Audience Adaptation and Source Credibility	232	(11)
Audience Attitudes and Change	232	(1)
Beliefs	232	(1)
Attitudes	233	(1)
Values	234	(1)
The Importance of Knowing Your Audience	234	(1)
Adapting Messages to Audiences	235	(1)
Audience Adaptation	236	(1)
Audience Analysis	237	(1)
Source Characteristics and Audience Response	238	(2)
Credibility	240	(1)
Attractiveness	241	(1)
Power	242	(1)
Relationships Between Source Characteristics	242	(1)
Constructing Valid Arguments	243	(8)
The Structure of Argument: The Toulmin Model	243	(1)
Parts of an Argument	243	(2)
Using the Toulmin Model	245	(1)
Types of Arguments	246	(1)
Authoritative and Motivational Arguments	246	(2)
Substantive Arguments	248	(2)
Guarding Against Unsound Warrants	250	(1)
Preparing and Presenting the Public Speech	251	(9)
Introductions and Conclusions	251	(1)
Functions of the Introduction	251	(2)
Functions of the Conclusion	253	(2)
Organizing the Body of the Speech	255	(3)
Outlining Main Points and Subpoints	258	(2)
Increasing Public Speaking Skills	260	(1)
Becoming a More Responsible Communicator	260	(2)
Summary	262	(5)
9 Communication and the Traditional Mass Media	267	(34)
What Is Mass Communication?	268	(4)
Defining Mass Communication	268	(1)
Characteristics of Media Messages	269	(1)
Institutional Sources	270	(1)
Invisible Receivers	270	(1)
Interposed Channels	271	(1)
How Audiences and Media Messages Interact	272	(9)
Functions of the Media	272	(2)
Media Effects: An Overview	274	(1)
What Media Messages Do to Receivers	275	(1)
Media Agendas	275	(1)
Hegemonic Messages	276	(1)
Media Logics	277	(1)
What Receivers Do With Media Messages	278	(1)
Selective Processing	278	(1)
Need Gratification	279	(1)
Reading Media Texts	280	(1)
Media Formats and Logics	281	(11)
Newspapers	282	(1)
Magazines	283	(2)
Radio	285	(2)
Television	287	(1)
Entertainment Programming	288	(1)
News Programming	289	(1)
The Pervasiveness of TV Logic	290	(1)
Other Media	291	(1)
Becoming a More Responsible Communicator	292	(3)
Ethical Issues for Media Practitioners	292	(2)
Using Media More Responsibly	294	(1)
Summary	295	(6)
10 Emerging Communication Technologies	301	(30)
What is Technology?	303	(8)
Defining Technology	304	(1)
Characteristics of the New Technologies	305	(1)
Digitization Technologies	305	(4)
Transmission Technologies	309	(1)
Why Communicate Electronically?	310	(1)
The Geography of Cyberspace: The Net, the Web, and the Highway	311	(3)
The Internet and the World Wide Web	311	(1)
The Information Superhighway	312	(1)
Virtual Reality	313	(1)
How Technology is Changing Communication	314	(8)
Interpersonal Communication and Electronically-Mediated Relationships	315	(1)
The Case of Joan and Alex	315	(1)
Characteristics of Electronic Relationships	316	(1)
Group and Organizational Communication: The Electronic Workplace	317	(1)
Telecommuting: Promise and Problems	318	(2)
Electronic Commerce: Doing Business on the Net	320	(1)
Public Communication: Virtual Communities	321	(1)
Election Democracy	321	(1)
Information and Disinformation on the Net	322	(1)
Becoming a More Responsible Communicator	322	(3)
Summary	325	(6)
11 Intercultural Communication	331	(30)
What Is Culture?	333	(7)
Defining Culture	333	(1)
Characteristics of Cultures	333	(1)
Cultures Are Learned	333	(1)
Cultures Are Shared	334	(2)
Cultures Are Multifaceted	336	(1)
Cultures Are Dynamic	337	(1)
Cultural Identities Are Overlapping	337	(1)
Why Communicate Cross-Culturally?	338	(1)
Living in the Global Village	338	(2)
Coming to Terms With Diversity	340	(1)
Intercultural Communication and Personal Growth	340	(1)
Barriers to Intercultural Communication	340	(12)
How Culture Affects Communication	341	(1)
Culture and Perception	341	(1)
Culture and Role Identities	342	(1)
Culture and Goals	343	(1)
Culture and Images of the Self	344	(1)
Culture and Language Style	345	(2)
Attitudes That Diminish Understanding	347	(1)
Stereotypes and Prejudices	348	(1)
Assumed Similarity	348	(2)
Anxiety and Withdrawal	350	(1)
Ethnocentrism	351	(1)
Adapting to New Cultures	352	(3)
Nature of the Host Culture	352	(2)
Personal Predispositions	354	(1)
Communication Bonds	354	(1)
Becoming a More Open Communicator	355	(1)
Summary	356	(5)
12 Methods of Discovery	361	(31)
How Is Communication Research Done?	362	(5)
Problems with Commonsense Ways of Knowing	363	(1)
Systematic Ways of Knowing	363	(2)
Common Research Tasks	365	(2)
Four Popular Research Methods	367	(18)
Rhetorical Criticism	370	(1)
Steps in Rhetorical Criticism	370	(1)
The Myth of the American Cowboy: An Example of Social Values Criticism	371	(2)
Ethnographic Research	373	(1)
Steps in Ethnographic Research	374	(1)
Talking Like a Man in Teamsterville: An Ethnography of Communication	375	(2)
Survey Research	377	(1)
Steps in Conducting a Survey	377	(3)
Making the Love Connection: An Example of Survey Research	380	(1)
Experimental Research	381	(1)
Steps in Doing an Experiment	382	(1)
Thanks for Not Smoking: An Example of a Field Experiment	383	(2)
Learning More About Communication	385	(3)
Subject Areas in Speech Communication	385	(1)
Other Sources of Discovery	386	(2)
Summary	388	(4)
Author Index	392	(3)
Subject Index	395