Understanding Physical Anthropology and Archeology

by Turnbaugh, William; Jurmain, Robert; Nelson, Harry; Kilgore, Lynn

• ISBN13: 9780314012326
• ISBN10: 031401232X
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1993-04-01
• Publisher: West Group

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xiv
Supplements	p. xvii
Introduction	p. 1
The Biocultural Approach	p. 2
What Is Anthropology?	p. 4
Cultural Anthropology	p. 4
Linguistic Anthropology	p. 5
Physical Anthropology	p. 6
Archaeology	p. 9
The Scientific Method	p. 14
The Anthropological Perspective	p. 15
Summary	p. 16
Questions for Review	p. 17
Suggested Further Reading	p. 17
Resources on the Internet	p. 18
Photo Essay: Careers in Physical Anthropology and Archaeology	p. 19
The Development of Evolutionary Theory	p. 23
Introduction	p. 24
A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought	p. 24
The Scientific Revolution	p. 25
The Path to Natural Selection	p. 26
Natural Selection	p. 33
Natural Selection in Action	p. 34
Constraints on Nineteenth-Century Evolutionary Theory	p. 36
Opposition to Evolution	p. 36
Summary	p. 38
Questions for Review	p. 38
Suggested Further Reading	p. 39
Resources on the Internet	p. 39
The Inheritance of Biological Traits	p. 41
Introduction	p. 42
The Cell	p. 42
DNA Structure and Function	p. 43
DNA Replication	p. 44
Protein Synthesis	p. 45
Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis	p. 47
Mitosis	p. 49
Meiosis	p. 50
The Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel	p. 52
Mendel's Principle of Segregation	p. 52
Dominance and Recessiveness	p. 53
Mendel's Principle of Independent Assortment	p. 55
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans	p. 56
Misconceptions Regarding Dominance and Recessiveness	p. 58
Polygenic Inheritance	p. 58
Genetic and Environmental Factors	p. 60
Mitochondrial Inheritance	p. 61
New Frontiers	p. 61
Summary	p. 63
Questions for Review	p. 64
Suggested Further Reading	p. 64
Resources on the Internet	p. 65
Issue: Genetic Screening: A Double-Edged Sword?	p. 66
Microevolution in Modern Human Populations	p. 69
Introduction	p. 70
The Modern Theory of Evolution	p. 70
The Definition of Evolution	p. 70
Population Genetics	p. 71
Mutation	p. 72
Gene Flow	p. 72
Genetic Drift	p. 73
Natural Selection	p. 74
Human Biocultural Evolution	p. 77
Human Polymorphisms	p. 78
Simple Polymorphisms	p. 78
Polymorphisms at the DNA Level	p. 81
Patterns of Human Population Diversity	p. 82
Summary	p. 83
Questions for Review	p. 84
Suggested Further Reading	p. 84
Resources on the Internet	p. 84
Human Variation and Adaptation	p. 86
Introduction	p. 87
Historical Views of Human Variation	p. 87
The Concept of Race	p. 90
Digging Deeper: Racial Purity: A False and Dangerous Ideology	p. 92
Intelligence	p. 94
The Adaptive Significance of Human Variation	p. 95
Solar Radiation, Vitamin D, and Skin Color	p. 95
The Thermal Environment	p. 97
High Altitude	p. 100
Infectious Disease	p. 101
Fundamentals of Growth and Development	p. 104
Stature	p. 104
Brain Growth	p. 105
Nutritional Effects on Growth and Development	p. 106
Basic Nutrients for Growth and Development	p. 106
Evolution of Nutritional Needs	p. 107
Genetics	p. 109
Hormones	p. 109
Environmental Factors	p. 110
Summary	p. 110
Questions for Review	p. 111
Suggested Further Reading	p. 111
Resources on the Internet	p. 112
Photo Essay: Paleopathology: Diseases and Injuries of Bone	p. 113
An Overview of the Living Primates	p. 119
Introduction	p. 120
Primates as Mammals	p. 120
Characteristics of Primates	p. 120
Primate Adaptations	p. 124
Evolutionary Factors	p. 124
Geographical Distribution and Habitats	p. 124
Diet and Teeth	p. 125
Locomotion	p. 128
A Survey of the Living Primates	p. 130
Primate Taxonomy	p. 130
Prosimians (Lemurs and Lorises)	p. 132
Tarsiers	p. 134
Anthropoids (Monkeys, Apes, and Humans)	p. 134
Hominoids (Apes and Humans)	p. 138
Humans	p. 143
Endangered Primates	p. 144
Summary	p. 146
Questions for Review	p. 146
Suggested Further Reading	p. 146
Resources on the Internet	p. 147
Primate Behavior	p. 148
Introduction	p. 149
The Importance of Primate Studies	p. 149
The Evolution of Behavior	p. 149
Nonhuman Primate Social Behavior	p. 152
Dominance	p. 153
Communication	p. 153
Aggression	p. 155
Affiliative Behaviors	p. 156
Reproduction and Reproductive Strategies	p. 158
Patterns of Reproduction	p. 158
Reproductive Strategies	p. 159
Mothers and Infants	p. 160
Nonhuman Primate Cultural Behavior	p. 162
Primate Cognitive Abilities	p. 164
The Primate Continuum	p. 168
Summary	p. 169
Questions for Review	p. 169
Suggested Further Reading	p. 170
Resources on the Internet	p. 171
Issue: Primates in Biomedical Research: Ethics and Concerns	p. 172
Mammalian/Primate Evolutionary History	p. 175
Introduction	p. 176
The Human Place in the Organic World	p. 176
Principles of Classification	p. 176
Constructing Classifications and Interpreting Evolutionary Relationships	p. 178
Vertebrate Evolutionary History: A Brief Summary	p. 182
Mammalian Evolution	p. 185
Major Mammalian Groups	p. 187
Early Primate Evolution	p. 188
Digging Deeper: Telling It Like It Isn't	p. 189
Miocene Fossil Hominoids	p. 191
Processes of Macroevolution	p. 193
Adaptive Radiation	p. 193
Generalized and Specialized Characteristics	p. 194
Modes of Evolutionary Change	p. 195
The Meaning of Genus and Species	p. 197
Summary	p. 198
Questions for Review	p. 199
Suggested Further Reading	p. 199
Resources on the Internet	p. 199
Paleoanthropology: Reconstructing Early Hominid Behavior and Ecology	p. 201
Introduction	p. 202
Definition of Hominid	p. 202
Biocultural Evolution: The Human Capacity for Culture	p. 202
The Strategy of Paleoanthropology	p. 204
Paleoanthropology in Action--Olduvai Gorge	p. 206
Dating Methods	p. 208
Digging Deeper: Mary Leakey (1913-1996)	p. 209
Digging Deeper: Discovery of Zinjanthropus, July 17, 1959	p. 210
Excavations at Olduvai	p. 210
Environmental Explanations for Hominid Origins	p. 213
Changing Environments and Later Hominid Diversifications	p. 214
Why Did Hominids Become Bipedal?	p. 215
Summary	p. 218
Questions for Review	p. 218
Suggested Further Reading	p. 219
Resources on the Internet	p. 219
Issue: Who Was Doing What at the Olduvai Sites?	p. 220
Hominid Origins	p. 222
Introduction	p. 223
The Bipedal Adaptation	p. 223
Box 10-1: Major Features of Hominid Bipedalism	p. 226
Early Hominids in the Plio-Pleistocene	p. 227
The East African Rift Valley	p. 228
The Earliest East African Hominids	p. 228
Earliest Traces	p. 228
Ardipithecus from Aramis (Ethiopia)	p. 228
Australopithecus from East Africa	p. 231
Australopithecus afarensis from Laetoli and Hadar	p. 232
Digging Deeper: Cranial Capacity	p. 234
Later East African Australopithecine Finds	p. 235
Australopithecines from Olduvai and Lake Turkana	p. 236
Early Homo	p. 237
Central Africa	p. 238
South African Sites	p. 240
Earliest Discoveries	p. 240
Further Discoveries of South African Hominids	p. 241
Review of Hominids from South Africa	p. 242
Geology and Dating Problems in South Africa	p. 245
Interpretations: What Does It All Mean?	p. 247
Continuing Uncertainties--Taxonomic Issues	p. 250
Putting It All Together	p. 252
Interpreting the Interpretations	p. 253
Summary	p. 254
Questions for Review	p. 255
Suggested Further Reading	p. 256
Resources on the Internet	p. 256
Homo erectus and Contemporaries	p. 257
Introduction	p. 258
Homo erectus: Terminology and Geographical Distribution	p. 258
The Pleistocene (1.8 m.y.a.-10,000 y.a.)	p. 262
The Morphology of Homo erectus	p. 262
Brain Size	p. 262
Body Size	p. 263
Cranial Shape	p. 263
Dentition	p. 263
Historical Overview of Homo erectus Discoveries	p. 264
Java	p. 265
Homo erectus from Java	p. 266
Peking (Beijing)	p. 266
Zhoukoudian Homo erectus	p. 267
Digging Deeper: The Control of Fire	p. 270
Other Chinese Sites	p. 270
East Africa	p. 273
Digging Deeper: The Nariokotome Skeleton--A Boy for All Seasons	p. 274
Summary of East African H. erectus	p. 275
South Africa	p. 275
North Africa	p. 275
Europe	p. 275
Technological and Population Trends in the Middle Pleistocene	p. 276
Technological Trends	p. 276
Population Trends	p. 278
Summary	p. 279
Questions for Review	p. 280
Suggested Further Reading	p. 280
Resources on the Internet	p. 280
Photo Essay: Paleoanthropology	p. 282
Neandertals and Other Archaic Homo sapiens	p. 287
Introduction	p. 288
Early Archaic H. sapiens	p. 288
Africa	p. 289
Asia	p. 289
Europe	p. 292
A Review of Middle Pleistocene Evolution (circa 400,000-125,000 y.a.)	p. 295
Middle Pleistocene Culture	p. 295
Neandertals: Late Archaic H. sapiens (130,000-35,000 y.a.)	p. 297
France and Spain	p. 299
Central Europe	p. 304
Western Asia	p. 305
Central Asia	p. 306
Culture of Neandertals	p. 306
Technology	p. 307
Settlements	p. 307
Subsistence	p. 307
Symbolic Behavior	p. 308
Burials	p. 309
Genetic Evidence	p. 310
Evolutionary Trends in the Genus Homo	p. 311
Taxonomic Issues	p. 312
Summary	p. 314
Questions for Review	p. 314
Suggested Further Reading	p. 315
Resources on the Internet	p. 315
Homo sapiens sapiens	p. 316
Introduction	p. 317
The Origin and Dispersal of Homo sapiens sapiens (Anatomically Modern Human Beings)	p. 317
The Complete Replacement Model (Recent African Evolution)	p. 318
The Partial Replacement Model	p. 320
The Regional Continuity Model (Multiregional Evolution)	p. 320
The Earliest Homo sapiens sapiens Discoveries	p. 320
Africa	p. 321
The Near East	p. 321
Central Europe	p. 323
Digging Deeper: The Garden of Eden Hypothesis	p. 324
Western Europe	p. 325
Asia	p. 327
Australia	p. 328
Technology and Art in the Upper Paleolithic	p. 328
Europe	p. 328
Africa	p. 336
Summary of Upper Paleolithic Culture	p. 337
Summary	p. 337
Questions for Review	p. 338
Suggested Further Reading	p. 338
Resources on the Internet	p. 338
Issue: The Evolution of Language	p. 340
Understanding the Past: Archaeological Approaches	p. 342
Introduction	p. 343
Archaeology and the Study of Prehistory	p. 343
Archaeological Research Objectives	p. 344
Digging Deeper: Mechanisms of Cultural Variation and Change	p. 345
Piecing Together the Past	p. 346
Artifacts and Contexts	p. 346
Ethnoarchaeology and Ethnographic Analogy	p. 347
Digging Deeper: Reconstructing Cultural Behavior from Garbage	p. 348
Experimental Archaeology	p. 349
Dating Prehistory	p. 352
Relative Dating	p. 352
Chronometric Dating	p. 354
Digging Deeper: Chronometric Dating Estimates	p. 357
The Archaeological Research Project	p. 359
Research Archaeology and Cultural Resource Management	p. 359
Designing a Research Program	p. 360
Gathering the Data	p. 360
Analyzing the Data	p. 366
Documenting the Results	p. 369
Summary	p. 369
Questions for Review	p. 370
Suggested Further Reading	p. 370
Resources on the Internet	p. 371
Holocene Hunters and Gatherers	p. 372
Introduction	p. 373
In Pursuit of the Earliest Americans	p. 374
Establishing the Old World Origins of New World Peoples	p. 375
Digging Deeper: NAGPRA and American Archaeology	p. 378
Evaluating Archaeological Traces of the Earliest Americans	p. 380
Paleo-Indians in the Americas	p. 383
Paleo-Indian Lifeways	p. 385
Pleistocene Extinctions	p. 387
Middle Stone Age Hunter-Fisher-Gatherers	p. 388
Early Holocene Environments	p. 388
Cultural Adjustment to Environmental Change	p. 389
Case Studies of Middle Stone Age Cultures	p. 391
Mesolithic Foragers and Collectors of Northern Europe	p. 391
Epipaleolithic Foragers and Collectors of the Near East	p. 392
Archaic Hunters and Gatherers of North America	p. 393
Cultural Ecology of Foraging and Food Collecting	p. 395
Summary	p. 396
Questions for Review	p. 397
Suggested Further Reading	p. 398
Resources on the Internet	p. 398
Photo Essay: Archaeology: Methods and Practice	p. 399
Food Production: A Biocultural Revolution	p. 409
Introduction	p. 410
The Neolithic Revolution	p. 411
Why and How Did Domestication and Agriculture Occur?	p. 411
Defining Agriculture and Domestication	p. 412
Environmental Explanations	p. 412
Demographic Explanations	p. 413
Ecological Explanations	p. 414
From Collecting to Cultivating	p. 416
Archaeological Evidence for Domestication and Agriculture	p. 416
Digging Deeper: What's to Eat?	p. 417
Plants	p. 418
Digging Deeper: What Archaeologists Can Learn from Dead Plants	p. 419
Nonhuman Animals	p. 420
Agricultural Societies of the Old World	p. 422
Near Eastern Farmers	p. 422
African Farmers	p. 424
Asian Farmers	p. 425
European Farmers	p. 426
Early Farmers in the Americas	p. 429
New World Domesticates	p. 430
Mexican Farmers	p. 430
South American Farmers	p. 431
Farmers of the Southwestern United States	p. 433
Farmers of Eastern North America	p. 436
Biocultural Consequences of Food Production	p. 439
Increased Population Density and Permanent Settlements	p. 439
New Technologies	p. 439
New Economic and Social Relations	p. 440
Environmental Changes	p. 440
Diminished Diversity	p. 441
Role of Science and Religion	p. 441
Cultural Competition and Change	p. 442
Diet and Health	p. 442
Summary	p. 444
Questions for Review	p. 445
Suggested Further Reading	p. 445
Resources on the Internet	p. 445
The First Civilizations	p. 447
Introduction	p. 448
Considering Civilization	p. 448
Why Did Civilizations Form?	p. 448
Functionalist Explanations	p. 452
Systems Approach	p. 453
Cities and Civilizations	p. 454
Roots of Urbanism	p. 454
Ancient Civilizations of the Old World	p. 457
Mesopotamia	p. 457
Egypt	p. 460
Digging Deeper: Discovering the Mummy's Secrets	p. 464
The Indus Valley	p. 464
Northern China	p. 467
The Mediterranean Realm	p. 469
Summary	p. 473
Questions for Review	p. 474
Suggested Further Reading	p. 474
Resources on the Internet	p. 475
Issue: Who Invented Writing?	p. 476
New World Civilizations	p. 478
Introduction	p. 479
Lowland Mesoamerica	p. 481
The Olmec	p. 481
The Classic Maya	p. 483
Digging Deeper: How to Count and Measure Time--The Maya Way	p. 487
Highland Mexico	p. 488
Teotihuacan	p. 488
The Toltecs and the Postclassic Maya	p. 490
The Aztecs	p. 491
Peru	p. 492
Fishing, Farming, and the Rise of Civilization	p. 492
The Chavin Phenomenon	p. 494
Early Cities	p. 495
From Kingdoms to Empires	p. 497
The Inka	p. 498
European Conquest of the New World	p. 499
Summary	p. 501
Questions for Review	p. 502
Suggested Further Reading	p. 502
Resources on the Internet	p. 503
Epilogue: Our Biocultural Legacy	p. 504
Atlas of Primate Skeletal Anatomy	p. 507
Population Genetics	p. 515
Glossary	p. 518
Bibliography	p. 528
Photo Credits	p. 545
Index	p. 547
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