Wind Power In Power Systems

by Editor: Thomas Ackermann (Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden)

• ISBN13: 9780470855089
• ISBN10: 0470855088
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-03-01
• Publisher: WILEY
• More Book Details
• Purchase Benefits

Summary

As environmental concerns have focussed attention on the generation of electricity from clean and renewable sources, wind energy has become the world's fastest growing energy source. The authors draw on substantial practical experience to address the technical, economic and safety issues inherent in the exploitation of wind power in a competitive electricity market. Presenting the reader with all the relevant background information key to understanding the integration of wind power into the power systems, this leading edge text: Presents an international perspective on integrating a high penetration of wind power into the power system Offers broad coverage ranging from basic network interconnection issues to industry deregulation and future concepts for wind turbines and power systems Discusses wind turbine technology, industry standards and regulations along with power quality issues Considers future concepts to increase the penetration of wind power in power systems Presents models for simulating wind turbines in power systems Outlines current research activities Essential reading for power engineers, wind turbine designers, wind project development and wind energy consultants dealing with the integration of wind power systems into distribution and transmission networks, this text would also be of interest to network engineers working for power utility companies dealing with interconnection issues and graduate students and researchers in the field of wind power and power systems.

Table of Contents

Contributors	xx
Abbreviations	xxix
Notation	xxxvi
Units	xlvi
Introduction	1	(4)
Thomas Ackermann
Part A Theoretical Background and Technical Regulations	5	(192)
Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power	7	(18)
Thomas Ackermann
Introduction	7	(1)
Historical Background	8	(3)
Mechanical power generation	8	(1)
Electrical power generation	9	(2)
Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide	11	(10)
Overview of grid-connected wind power generation	11	(1)
Europe	11	(2)
North America	13	(3)
South and Central America	16	(1)
Asia and Pacific	16	(1)
Middle East and Africa	17	(1)
Overview of stand-alone generation	18	(1)
Wind power economics	18	(2)
Environmental issues	20	(1)
Status of Wind Turbine Technology	21	(2)
Design approaches	22	(1)
Conclusions	23	(2)
Acknowledgements	23	(1)
References	23	(2)
Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction	25	(28)
Lennart Soder
Thomas Ackermann
Introduction	25	(1)
Power System History	25	(1)
Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems	26	(2)
Network Integration Issues for Wind Power	28	(1)
Basic Electrical Engineering	29	(3)
Characteristics of Wind Power Generation	32	(8)
The wind	32	(1)
The physics	33	(1)
Wind power production	34	(6)
Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power	40	(6)
Consumer requirements	40	(1)
Requirements from wind farm operators	41	(1)
The integration issues	41	(5)
Conclusions	46	(7)
Appendix: A Mechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power	47	(1)
Introduction	47	(1)
Active power balance	48	(1)
Reactive power balance	49	(1)
References	50	(3)
Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines	53	(26)
Anca D. Hansen
Introduction	53	(1)
State-of-the-art Technologies	53	(12)
Overview of wind turbine topologies	53	(2)
Overview of power control concepts	55	(1)
State-of-the-art generators	55	(4)
State-of-the-art power electronics	59	(3)
State-of-the-art market penetration	62	(3)
Generator Concepts	65	(7)
Asynchronous (induction) generator	66	(3)
The synchronous generator	69	(1)
Other types of generators	70	(2)
Power Electronic Concepts	72	(3)
Soft-starter	72	(1)
Capacitor bank	72	(1)
Rectifiers and inverters	73	(1)
Frequency converters	74	(1)
Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms	75	(2)
Conclusions	77	(2)
References	77	(2)
Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines	79	(18)
John Olav Tande
Introduction	79	(1)
Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines	80	(5)
Rated data	81	(1)
Maximum permitted power	81	(1)
Maximum measured power	81	(1)
Reactive power	81	(1)
Flicker coefficient	82	(1)
Maximum number of wind turbine switching operations	83	(1)
Flicker step factor	83	(1)
Voltage change factor	84	(1)
Harmonic currents	84	(1)
Summary power quality characteristics for various wind turbine types	84	(1)
Impact on Voltage Quality	85	(8)
General	85	(1)
Case study specifications	86	(1)
Slow voltage variations	87	(2)
Flicker	89	(2)
Voltage dips	91	(1)
Harmonic voltage	92	(1)
Discussion	93	(1)
Conclusions	94	(3)
References	95	(2)
Power Quality Measurements	97	(18)
Fritz Santjer
Introduction	97	(1)
Requirements for Power Quality Measurements	98	(7)
Guidelines	98	(1)
Specification	99	(5)
Future aspects	104	(1)
Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines and Wind Farms	105	(6)
Power peaks	105	(1)
Reactive power	106	(1)
Harmonics	106	(2)
Flicker	108	(1)
Switching operations	109	(2)
Assessment Concerning the Grid Connection	111	(1)
Conclusions	112	(3)
References	113	(2)
Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Farms to the Power System	115	(28)
Julija Matevosyan
Thomas Ackermann
Sigrid M. Bolik
Introduction	115	(1)
Overview of Technical Regulations	115	(6)
Regulations for networks below 110kV	117	(2)
Regulations for networks above 110kV	119	(1)
Combined regulations	120	(1)
Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations	121	(15)
Active power control	122	(1)
Frequency control	123	(1)
Voltage control	124	(4)
Tap changers	128	(1)
Wind farm protection	128	(5)
Modelling information and verification	133	(1)
Communication and external control	133	(1)
Discussion of interconnection regulations	134	(2)
Technical Solutions for New Interconnection Rules	136	(2)
Absolute power constraint	136	(1)
Balance control	136	(1)
Power rate limitation control approach	136	(1)
Delta control	137	(1)
Interconnection Practice	138	(2)
Conclusions	140	(3)
References	140	(3)
Power System Requirements for Wind Power	143	(26)
Hannele Holttinen
Ritva Hirvonen
Introduction	143	(1)
Operation of the Power System	144	(5)
System reliability	145	(1)
Frequency control	146	(1)
Voltage management	147	(2)
Wind Power Production and the Power System	149	(7)
Production patterns of wind power	149	(2)
Variations of production and the smoothing effect	151	(4)
Predictability of wind power production	155	(1)
Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System	156	(8)
Short-term effects on reserves	156	(4)
Other short-term effects	160	(2)
Long-term effects on the adequacy of power capacity	162	(2)
Wind power in future power systems	164	(1)
Conclusions	164	(5)
References	165	(4)
The Value of Wind Power	169	(28)
Lennart Soder
Introduction	169	(1)
The Value of a Power Plant	169	(1)
Operating cost value	169	(1)
Capacity credit	170	(1)
Control value	170	(1)
Loss reduction value	170	(1)
Grid investment value	170	(1)
The Value of Wind Power	170	(10)
The operating cost value of wind power	171	(1)
The capacity credit of wind power	171	(3)
The control value of wind power	174	(3)
The loss reduction value of wind power	177	(3)
The grid investment value of wind power	180	(1)
The Market Value of Wind Power	180	(14)
The market operation cost value of wind power	180	(1)
The market capacity credit of wind power	181	(1)
The market control value of wind power	182	(6)
The market loss reduction value of wind power	188	(1)
The market grid investment value of wind power	189	(5)
Conclusions	194	(3)
References	195	(2)
Part B Power System Integration Experience	197	(214)
Wind Power in the Danish Power System	199	(34)
Peter Borre Eriksen
Carl Hilger
Introduction	199	(4)
Operational Issues	203	(16)
The Nordic market model for electricity trading	205	(2)
Different markets	207	(2)
Interaction between technical rules and the market	209	(1)
Example of how Eltra handles the balance task	210	(1)
Balancing via Nord Pool: first step	211	(2)
The accuracy of the forecasts	213	(2)
Network controller and instantaneous reserves	215	(1)
Balancing prices in the real-time market	215	(2)
Market prices fluctuating with high wind production	217	(1)
Other operational problems	217	(2)
System Analysis and Modelling Issues	219	(12)
Future development of wind power	219	(1)
Wind regime	220	(1)
Wind power forecast models	221	(2)
Grid connection	223	(1)
Modelling of power systems with large-scale wind power production	224	(2)
Wind power and system analysis	226	(2)
Case study CO2 reductions according to the Kyoto Protocol	228	(3)
Conclusions and Lessons Learned	231	(2)
References	232	(1)
Wind Power in the German Power System: Current Status and Future Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply	233	(24)
Matthias Luther
Uwe Radtke
Wilhelm R. Winter
Introduction	233	(1)
Current Performance of Wind Energy in Germany	234	(2)
Wind Power Supply in the E.ON Netz Area	236	(1)
Electricity System Control Requirements	237	(1)
Network Planning and Connection Requirements	238	(3)
Wind Turbines and Dynamic Performance Requirements	241	(1)
Object of Investigation and Constraints	241	(3)
Simulation Results	244	(8)
Voltage quality	244	(4)
Frequency stability	248	(4)
Additional Dynamic Requirements of Wind Turbines	252	(2)
Conclusions	254	(3)
References	255	(2)
Wind Power on Weak Grids in California and the US Midwest	257	(26)
H. M. Romanowitz
Introduction	257	(2)
The Early Weak Grid: Background	259	(5)
Tehachapi 66kV transmission	259	(1)
VARs	260	(1)
Facts devices	260	(1)
Development of wind energy on the Tehachapi 66kV grid	261	(1)
Reliable generation	262	(1)
Capacity factor improvement: firming intermittent wind generation	263	(1)
Voltage Regulation: VAR Support on a Wind-dominated Grid	264	(16)
Voltage control of a self-excited induction machine	264	(1)
Voltage regulated VAR control	264	(1)
Typical wind farm PQ operating characteristics	265	(2)
Local voltage change from VAR support	267	(1)
Location of supplying VARs within a wind farm	268	(1)
Self-correcting fault condition: VAR starvation	269	(1)
Efficient-to-use idle wind turbine component capacity for low-voltage VARs	270	(1)
Harmonics and harmonic resonance: location on grid	271	(3)
Islanding, self-correcting conditions and speed of response for VAR controls	274	(1)
Self-correcting fault condition: VAR starvation	275	(1)
Higher-speed grid events: wind turbines that stay connected through grid events	276	(2)
Use of advanced VAR support technologies on weak grids	278	(1)
Load flow studies on a weak grid and with induction machines	279	(1)
Private Tehachapi Transmission Line	280	(1)
Conclusions	281	(2)
References	282	(1)
Wind Power on the Swedish Island of Gotland	283	(16)
Christer Liljegren
Thomas Ackermann
Introduction	283	(4)
History	283	(2)
Description of the local power system	285	(1)
Power exchange with the mainland	286	(1)
Wind power in the South of Gotland	286	(1)
The Voltage Source Converter Based High-voltage Direct-current Solution	287	(4)
Choice of technology	287	(1)
Description	287	(1)
Controllability	288	(1)
Reactive power support and control	288	(1)
Voltage control	288	(1)
Protection philosophy	289	(1)
Losses	290	(1)
Practical experience with the installation	290	(1)
Tjareborg Project	291	(1)
Grid Issues	291	(5)
Flicker	292	(1)
Transient phenomena	292	(1)
Stability issues with voltage control equipment	293	(1)
Validation	294	(1)
Power flow	295	(1)
Technical responsibility	296	(1)
Future work	296	(1)
Conclusions	296	(3)
Further Reading	297	(1)
References	297	(2)
Isolated Systems with Wind Power	299	(32)
Per Lundsager
E. Ian Baring-Gould
Introduction	299	(1)
Use of Wind Energy in Isolated Power Systems	300	(10)
System concepts and configurations	300	(5)
Basic considerations and constraints for wind-diesel power stations	305	(5)
Categorisation of Systems	310	(1)
Systems and Experience	311	(4)
Overview of systems	312	(1)
Hybrid power system experience	312	(3)
Wind Power Impact on Power Quality	315	(5)
Distribution network voltage levels	316	(1)
System stability and power quality	316	(1)
Power and voltage fluctuations	317	(1)
Power system operation	317	(3)
System Modelling Requirements	320	(2)
Requirements and applications	321	(1)
Some numerical models for isolated systems	322	(1)
Application Issues	322	(5)
Cost of energy and economics	324	(1)
Consumer demands in isolated communities	325	(1)
Standards, guidelines and project development approaches	325	(2)
Conclusions and Recommendations	327	(4)
References	328	(3)
Wind Farms in Weak Power Networks in India	331	(18)
Poul Sorensen
Introduction	331	(3)
Network Characteristics	334	(4)
Transmission capacity	334	(1)
Steady-state voltage and outages	335	(2)
Frequency	337	(1)
Harmonic and interharmonic distortions	337	(1)
Reactive power consumption	338	(1)
Voltage imbalance	338	(1)
Wind Turbine Characteristics	338	(1)
Wind Turbine Influence on Grids	339	(4)
Steady-state voltage	339	(1)
Reactive power consumption	339	(3)
Harmonic and interharmonic emission	342	(1)
Grid Influence on Wind Turbines	343	(4)
Power performance	343	(2)
Safety	345	(1)
Structural lifetime	346	(1)
Stress on electric components	346	(1)
Reactive power compensation	346	(1)
Conclusions	347	(2)
References	347	(2)
Practical Experience with Power Quality and Wind Power	349	(16)
Ake Larsson
Introduction	349	(1)
Voltage Variations	349	(3)
Flicker	352	(6)
Continuous operation	352	(2)
Switching operations	354	(4)
Harmonics	358	(2)
Transients	360	(1)
Frequency	361	(2)
Conclusions	363	(2)
References	363	(2)
Wind Power Forecast for the German and Danish Networks	365	(18)
Bernhard Ernst
Introduction	365	(1)
Current Development and Use of Wind Power Prediction Tools	366	(1)
Current Wind Power Prediction Tools	367	(10)
Prediktor	367	(1)
Wind Power Prediction Tool	368	(2)
Zephyr	370	(1)
Previento	370	(1)
eWind	370	(1)
Sipreolico	371	(1)
Advanced Wind Power Prediction Tool	372	(4)
Honeymoon project	376	(1)
Conclusions and Outlook	377	(6)
Conclusions	377	(3)
Outlook	380	(1)
References	380	(1)
Useful websites	381	(2)
Economic Aspects of Wind Power in Power Systems	383	(28)
Thomas Ackermann
Paul Erik Morthorst
Introduction	383	(1)
Costs for Network Connection and Network Upgrading	384	(6)
Shallow connection charges	384	(3)
Deep connection charges	387	(1)
Shallowish connection charges	388	(1)
Discussion of technical network limits	388	(1)
Summary of network interconnection and upgrade costs	389	(1)
System Operation Costs in a Deregulated Market	390	(5)
Primary control issues	391	(1)
Treatment of system operation costs	392	(1)
Secondary control issues	392	(3)
Electricity market aspects	395	(1)
Example: Nord Pool	395	(13)
The Nord Pool power exchange	396	(1)
Elspot pricing	397	(1)
Wind power and the power exchange	398	(5)
Wind power and the balancing market	403	(5)
Conclusions	408	(3)
References	409	(2)
Part C Future Concepts	411	(112)
Wind Power and Voltage Control	413	(20)
J. G. Slootweg
S. W. H. de Haan
H. Polinder
W. L. Kling
Introduction	413	(1)
Voltage Control	414	(6)
The need for voltage control	414	(2)
Active and reactive power	416	(1)
Impact of wind power on voltage control	417	(3)
Voltage Control Capabilities of Wind Turbines	420	(5)
Current wind turbine types	420	(1)
Wind turbine voltage control capabilities	421	(4)
Factors affecting voltage control	425	(1)
Simulation Results	425	(5)
Test system	425	(1)
Steady-state analysis	426	(2)
Dynamic analysis	428	(2)
Voltage Control Capability and Converter Rating	430	(1)
Conclusions	431	(2)
References	432	(1)
Wind Power in Areas with Limited Transmission Capacity	433	(28)
Julija Matevosyan
Introduction	433	(1)
Transmission Limits	434	(6)
Thermal limit	434	(1)
Voltage stability limit	435	(3)
Power output of wind turbines	438	(1)
Transient stability	439	(1)
Summary	439	(1)
Transmission Capacity: Methods of Determination	440	(2)
Determination of cross-border transmission capacity	440	(1)
Determination of transmission capacity within the country	441	(1)
Summary	442	(1)
Measures to Increase Transmission Capacity	442	(3)
`Soft' measures	442	(1)
Possible reinforcement measures: thermal limit	443	(1)
Possible reinforcement measures: voltage stability limit	444	(1)
Converting AC transmission lines to DC for higher transmission ratings	444	(1)
Impact of Wind Generation on Transmission Capacity	445	(1)
Alternatives to Grid Reinforcement for the Integration of Wind Power	446	(12)
Regulation using existing generation sources	447	(1)
Wind energy spillage	447	(10)
Summary	457	(1)
Conclusions	458	(3)
References	458	(3)
Benefits of Active Management of Distribution Systems	461	(18)
Goran Strbac
Predrag Djapic
Thomas Bopp
Nick Jenkins
Background	461	(1)
Active Management	462	(3)
Voltage-rise effect	462	(2)
Active management control strategies	464	(1)
Quantification of the Benefits of Active Management	465	(11)
Introduction	465	(1)
Case studies	466	(10)
Conclusions	476	(3)
References	476	(3)
Transmission Systems for Offshore Wind Farms	479	(26)
Thomas Ackermann
Introduction	479	(2)
General Electrical Aspects	481	(3)
Offshore substations	482	(1)
Redundancy	483	(1)
Transmission System to Shore	484	(13)
High-voltage alternating-current transmission	485	(1)
Line-commutated converter based high-voltage direct-current transmission	486	(2)
Voltage source converter based high-voltage direct-current transmission	488	(2)
Comparison	490	(7)
System Solutions for Offshore Wind Farms	497	(2)
Use of low frequency	497	(1)
DC solutions based on wind turbines with AC generators	498	(1)
DC solutions based on wind turbines with DC generators	498	(1)
Offshore Grid Systems	499	(1)
Alternative Transmission Solutions	500	(1)
Conclusions	500	(5)
Acknowledgement	501	(1)
References	501	(4)
Hydrogen as a Means of Transporting and Balancing Wind Power Production	505	(18)
Robert Steinberger-Wilckens
Introduction	505	(1)
A Brief Introduction to Hydrogen	506	(1)
Technology and Efficiency	507	(3)
Hydrogen production	507	(1)
Hydrogen storage	508	(1)
Hydrogen transport	509	(1)
Reconversion to Electricity: Fuel Cells	510	(2)
Hydrogen and Wind Energy	512	(2)
Upgrading Surplus Wind Energy	514	(2)
Hydrogen products	516	(1)
A Blueprint for a Hydrogen Distribution System	516	(3)
Initial cost estimates	518	(1)
Conclusions	519	(4)
References	519	(4)
Part D Dynamic Modelling of Wind Turbines for power System Studies	523	(154)
Introduction to the Modelling of Wind Turbines	525	(30)
Hans Knudsen
Jorgen Nygard Nielsen
Introduction	525	(1)
Basic Considerations regarding Modelling and Simulations	526	(1)
Overview of Aerodynamic Modelling	526	(8)
Basic description of the turbine rotor	527	(5)
Different representations of the turbine rotor	532	(2)
Basic Modelling Block Description of Wind Turbines	534	(7)
Aerodynamic system	535	(1)
Mechanical system	536	(1)
Generator drive concepts	536	(3)
Pitch servo	539	(1)
Main control system	539	(2)
Protection systems and relays	541	(1)
Per Unit Systems and Data for the Mechanical System	541	(5)
Different Types of Simulation and Requirements for Accuracy	546	(6)
Simulation work and required modelling accuracy	546	(1)
Different types of simulation	547	(5)
Conclusions	552	(3)
References	553	(2)
Reduced-order Modelling of Wind Turbines	555	(32)
J. G. Slootweg
H. Polinder
W. L. Kling
Introduction	555	(1)
Power System Dynamics Simulation	556	(1)
Current Wind Turbine Types	557	(1)
Modelling Assumptions	557	(2)
Model of a Constant-speed Wind Turbine	559	(8)
Model structure	559	(1)
Wind speed model	559	(3)
Rotor model	562	(2)
Shaft model	564	(1)
Generator model	565	(2)
Model of a Wind Turbine with a Doubly fed Induction Generator	567	(9)
Model structure	567	(1)
Rotor model	568	(1)
Generator model	568	(2)
Converter model	570	(2)
Protection system model	572	(1)
Rotor speed controller model	573	(1)
Pitch angle controller model	574	(1)
Terminal voltage controller model	575	(1)
Model of a Direct drive Wind Turbine	576	(3)
Generator model	577	(1)
Voltage controller model	578	(1)
Model Validation	579	(5)
Measured and simulated model response	579	(3)
Comparison of measurements and simulations	582	(2)
Conclusions	584	(3)
References	584	(3)
High-order Models of Doubly-fed Induction Generators	587	(16)
Eva Centeno Lopez
Jonas Persson
Introduction	587	(1)
Advantages of Using a Doubly-fed Induction Generator	588	(1)
The Components of a Doubly-fed Induction Generator	588	(1)
Machine Equations	589	(8)
The vector method	590	(2)
Notation of quantities	592	(1)
Voltage equations of the machine	592	(2)
Flux equations of the machine	594	(1)
Mechanical equations of the machine	595	(2)
Mechanical equations of the wind turbine	597	(1)
Voltage Source Converter	597	(2)
Sequencer	599	(1)
Simulation of the Doubly-fed Induction Generator	599	(1)
Reducing the Order of the Doubly-fed Induction Generator	600	(1)
Conclusions	601	(2)
References	602	(1)
Full-scale Verification of Dynamic Wind Turbine Models	603	(26)
Vladislav Akhmatov
Introduction	603	(4)
Background	604	(1)
Process of validation	605	(2)
Partial Validation	607	(12)
Induction generator model	607	(4)
Shaft system model	611	(2)
Aerodynamic rotor model	613	(5)
Summary of partial validation	618	(1)
Full-scale Validation	619	(6)
Experiment outline	619	(2)
Measured behaviour	621	(1)
Modelling Case	622	(1)
Model validation	623	(2)
Discrepancies between model and measurements	625	(1)
Conclusions	625	(4)
References	626	(3)
Impacts of Wind Power on Power System Dynamics	629	(24)
J. G. Slootweg
W. L. Kling
Introduction	629	(1)
Power System Dynamics	630	(1)
Actual Wind Turbine Types	631	(1)
Impact of Wind Power on Transient Stability	632	(13)
Dynamic behaviour of wind turbine types	632	(4)
Dynamic behaviour of wind farms	636	(2)
Simulation results	638	(7)
Impact of Wind Power on Small Signal Stability	645	(5)
Eigenvalue-frequency domain analysis	645	(1)
Analysis of the impact of wind power on small signal stability	646	(1)
Simulation results	647	(1)
Preliminary conclusions	648	(2)
Conclusions	650	(3)
References	651	(2)
Aggregated Modelling and Short-term Voltage Stability of Large Wind Farms	653	(24)
Vladislav Akhmatov
Introduction	653	(3)
Main outline	654	(1)
Area of application	655	(1)
Additional requirements	655	(1)
Large Wind Farm Model	656	(2)
Reactive power conditions	657	(1)
Faulting conditions	658	(1)
Fixed-speed Wind Turbines	658	(5)
Wind turbine parameters	661	(1)
Stabilisation through power ramp	661	(2)
Wind Turbines with Variable Rotor Resistance	663	(2)
Variable-speed Wind Turbines with Doubly-fed Induction Generators	665	(5)
Blocking and restart of converter	667	(1)
Response of a large wind farm	668	(2)
Variable-speed Wind Turbines with Permanent Magnet Generators	670	(2)
A Single Machine Equivalent	672	(1)
Conclusions	673	(4)
References	673	(4)
Index	677