AC Power Systems Handbook, Third Edition

by Whitaker; Jerry C.

• ISBN13: 9780849340345
• ISBN10: 0849340349
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-09-26
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Sooner or later, power system protection is going to cost money. How much is entirely up to you. Setting up a safe and effective AC power system from the very beginning can help avoid costly downtime and repairs, provide backup power during system outages, and minimize workplace accidents. For the past 15 years, Jerry Whitaker's AC Power Systems Handbook has supplied industry professionals with a comprehensive, practical guide to the key elements of AC power for commercial and industrial systems.This third edition is thoroughly revised and completely reorganized to reflect the changing demands of modern power systems. To ease navigation, many sections are now presented as separate chapters filled with updated and expanded information. Most notably, the author adds heavily in the areas of transient suppression hardware, electrical system components, and power system fundamentals. Following a logical progression, coverage flows from power system operation to protecting equipment loads, selecting the right level of protection, grounding, standby power, and safety. Along the way, the author paints a clear picture of the sources of disturbances, the tradeoffs involved for different options, and the advantages and limitations of various approaches.Streamlined to be a hands-on, user-oriented guide, the AC Power Systems Handbook offers expert guidance on designing and installing a safe and efficient power system.

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
About the Author	xix
AC Power Systems
Introduction	1	(3)
Defining Terms	1	(2)
Power Electronics	3	(1)
AC Circuit Analysis	4	(3)
Power Relationship in AC Circuits	4	(1)
Complex Numbers	4	(2)
Phasors	6	(1)
Per Unit System	6	(1)
Elements of the AC Power System	7	(9)
Transmission Circuits	7	(1)
Types of Conductors	8	(1)
Overhead Conductors	8	(2)
Underground Cables	10	(1)
Skin Effect	10	(1)
Dielectrics and Insulators	11	(1)
Insulating Liquids	12	(1)
Insulating Solids	13	(1)
Control and Switching Systems	14	(1)
Fault Protection Devices	15	(1)
Lightning Arrester	16	(1)
Utility AC Power System Architecture	16	(17)
Power Distribution	18	(1)
Distribution Substations	18	(2)
Breaker Schemes	20	(2)
Voltage Analysis	22	(1)
High-Voltage DC Transmission	22	(2)
AC vs. DC Transmission	24	(1)
DC Circuit Breakers	25	(1)
Utility Company Interfacing	26	(1)
Phase-to-Phase Balance	27	(1)
Load Fault Protection	27	(1)
Fuses	28	(1)
Circuit Breakers	28	(1)
Semiconductor Fuses	28	(1)
Application Considerations	29	(1)
Transient Currents	29	(1)
Delay-Trip Considerations	30	(1)
Measuring AC Power	31	(1)
Digital Measurement Techniques	32	(1)
References	33	(1)
Bibliography	34	(1)
Power-Generation Systems
Introduction	35	(1)
Fundamental Concepts	35	(5)
Operating Principles	35	(4)
Control Techniques	39	(1)
Power-Generating Systems	40	(8)
Fossil Fuel Power Plants	40	(4)
Nuclear Power Plants	44	(1)
Hydroelectric Power Plants	45	(3)
References	48	(1)
Bibliography	48	(1)
Power Factor
Introduction	49	(1)
Fundamental Principles	49	(3)
PF Correction Techniques	52	(6)
On-Site Power Factor Correction	53	(2)
Shunt Reactors	55	(1)
Unwanted Resonance Conditions	55	(1)
Series Capacitor Compensation	56	(1)
Static Compensation Devices	57	(1)
References	58	(1)
Bibliography	58	(1)
Power Transformers
Introduction	59	(1)
Inductive Properties	59	(3)
Coils	60	(1)
The Toroid	61	(1)
Circuit Description of Self-Inductance	61	(1)
Magnetic Materials	62	(1)
Basic Principles of the Transformer	62	(13)
Counter-Electromotive Force	68	(1)
Full Load Percent Impedance	68	(1)
Design Considerations	69	(2)
The Ideal Transformer	71	(1)
Application Considerations	72	(3)
Transformer Failure Modes	75	(4)
Thermal Considerations	76	(1)
Life Expectancy and Temperature	76	(1)
Voltage Considerations	76	(1)
Mechanical Considerations	77	(1)
Dry-Type and Liquid-Filled Transformers	77	(1)
Insulation Materials	78	(1)
Insulating Liquids	78	(1)
Cooling	79	(1)
References	79	(1)
Bibliography	79	(2)
Capacitors
Introduction	81	(1)
Basic Principles	81	(5)
Series and Parallel Connections	85	(1)
Practical Capacitors	86	(1)
Capacitor Failure Modes	86	(5)
Electrolytic Capacitors	86	(2)
Mechanical Failure	88	(1)
Temperature Cycling	89	(1)
Electrolyte Failures	89	(1)
Capacitor Life Span	90	(1)
Tantalum Capacitor	91	(1)
References	91	(1)
Bibliography	92	(1)
Semiconductors
Introduction	93	(1)
Semiconductor Failure Modes	93	(4)
Device Ruggedness	93	(1)
Forward Bias Safe Operating Area	94	(1)
Reverse Bias Safe Operating Area	94	(1)
Power-Handling Capability	95	(1)
Semiconductor Derating	95	(1)
Failure Mechanisms	96	(1)
Avalanche Breakdown	96	(1)
Alpha Multiplication	96	(1)
Punch-Through	96	(1)
Thermal Runaway	97	(1)
Mosfet Devices	97	(6)
Safe Operating Area	97	(4)
MOSFET Failure Modes	101	(1)
Breakdown Effects	101	(1)
Thermal Second Breakdown	102	(1)
Metallization Failure	102	(1)
Polarity Reversal	102	(1)
Thyristor Components	103	(1)
Failure Modes	104	(1)
Application Considerations	104	(1)
ESD Failure Modes	104	(3)
Failure Mechanisms	105	(2)
Latent Failures	107	(1)
Case in Point	107	(1)
Semiconductor Development	107	(4)
Failure Analysis	108	(3)
Chip Protection	111	(1)
Effects of Arcing	111	(1)
Insulation Breakdown	112	(1)
References	112	(1)
Bibliography	112	(3)
Rectifier and Filter Circuits
Introduction	115	(1)
Power Rectifiers	116	(9)
Operating Rectifiers in Series	116	(1)
Operating Rectifiers in Parallel	117	(1)
Silicon Avalanche Rectifiers	118	(1)
Single-Phase Rectifier Configurations	119	(1)
Half-Wave Rectifier	119	(1)
Full-Wave Rectifier	120	(1)
Bridge Rectifier	121	(1)
Voltage Multiplier	122	(1)
Polyphase Rectifier Circuits	122	(3)
Power Supply Filter Circuits	125	(4)
Inductive Input Filter	125	(2)
Capacitive Input Filter	127	(2)
References	129	(1)
Bibliography	129	(2)
Power Electronics
Introduction	131	(1)
Thyristor Devices	131	(9)
Thyristor Servo Systems	132	(1)
Inductive Loads	133	(1)
Applications	134	(3)
Triggering Circuits	137	(2)
Control Flexibility	139	(1)
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor	139	(1)
Reverse-Conducting Thyristor	139	(1)
Asymmetrical Silicon-Controlled Rectifier	140	(1)
Fusing	140	(1)
Power Transistors	140	(3)
Power MOSFET	141	(1)
Rugged MOSFET	141	(1)
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor	142	(1)
MOS-Controlled Thyristor	143	(1)
References	143	(1)
Bibliography	143	(2)
Origins of AC Line Disturbances
Introduction	145	(1)
Naturally Occurring Disturbances	145	(12)
Sources of Atmospheric Energy	145	(2)
Characteristics of Lightning	147	(2)
Cloud-to-Cloud Activity	149	(1)
Lightning Protection	150	(1)
Protection Area	151	(2)
Electrostatic Discharge	153	(1)
Triboelectric Effect	154	(1)
EMP Radiation	155	(1)
Coupling Transient Energy	156	(1)
Equipment-Caused Transient Disturbances	157	(10)
Utility System Faults	158	(1)
Switch Contact Arcing	158	(1)
Telephone System Transients	159	(2)
Nonlinear Loads and Harmonic Energy	161	(3)
Harmonic Sources	164	(1)
Carrier Storage	165	(1)
Transient-Generated Noise	166	(1)
ESD Noise	166	(1)
Contact Arcing	166	(1)
SCR Switching	166	(1)
References	167	(1)
Bibliography	167	(2)
Power Disturbance Characterization
Introduction	169	(1)
Standards of Measurement	170	(9)
Assessing the Threat	173	(1)
Fundamental Measurement Techniques	173	(1)
Root-Mean-Square	173	(1)
Average-Response Measurement	174	(1)
Peak-Response Measurement	174	(2)
Meter Accuracy	176	(1)
Digital Measurement Instruments	177	(1)
Digital Monitor Features	178	(1)
Reliability Considerations	179	(1)
References	179	(1)
Bibliography	179	(2)
Power System Protection Methods
Introduction	181	(1)
The Key Tolerance Envelope	181	(2)
Assessing the Lightning Hazard	183	(1)
FIPS Publication 94	184	(1)
Protection Alternatives	185	(4)
Specifying System-Protection Hardware	187	(2)
References	189	(1)
Bibliography	189	(2)
Motor-Generator Set
Introduction	191	(1)
System Configuration	191	(10)
Motor Design Considerations	194	(1)
Single-Shaft Systems	195	(1)
Flywheel Considerations	196	(1)
Maintenance Considerations	197	(1)
Motor-Generator UPS	197	(2)
Kinetic Battery Storage System	199	(2)
References	201	(1)
Bibliography	201	(2)
Uninterruptible Power Systems
Introduction	203	(1)
UPS Configuration	203	(10)
Power-Conversion Methods	205	(1)
Ferroresonant Inverter	205	(1)
Delta Magnetic Inverter	206	(1)
Inverter-Fed L/C Tank	207	(1)
Quasi-Square Wave Inverter	207	(2)
Step Wave Inverter	209	(1)
Pulse-Width Modulation Inverter	209	(1)
Phase Modulation Inverter	209	(1)
Redundant Operation	209	(3)
Output Transfer Switch	212	(1)
Battery Supply	213	(1)
References	213	(1)
Bibliography	213	(2)
Power Conditioning Devices
Introduction	215	(1)
Ferroresonant Transformer	215	(2)
Magnetic-Coupling-Controlled Voltage Regulator	216	(1)
Isolation Transformer	217	(5)
Tap-Changing Regulator	219	(1)
Variable Ratio Regulator	220	(1)
Variable Voltage Transformer	221	(1)
Brush Type	222	(1)
Induction Type	222	(1)
Line Conditioner	222	(4)
Hybrid Transient Suppressor	224	(1)
Active Power-Line Conditioner	224	(2)
Application Considerations	226	(1)
References	226	(1)
Bibliography	226	(1)
Transient-Suppression Devices
Introduction	227	(1)
Filter Devices	227	(2)
Crowbar Devices	229	(1)
Characteristics of Arcs	229	(1)
Voltage-Clamping Devices	229	(9)
Zener Components	234	(3)
Hybrid Suppression Circuits	237	(1)
Selecting Protection Components	238	(1)
References	238	(1)
Bibliography	239	(2)
Facility Wiring and Transient Protection
Introduction	241	(1)
Facility Wiring	241	(4)
Utility Service Entrance	243	(2)
Power-System Protection	245	(6)
Staging	245	(3)
Design Cautions	248	(1)
Specifications	248	(1)
Single-Phasing	249	(1)
Surge Suppressor Selection	249	(2)
References	251	(1)
Bibliography	251	(2)
Circuit-Level Transient Suppression
Introduction	253	(1)
Protecting Low-Voltage Supplies	253	(1)
Protecting High-Voltage Supplies	253	(4)
RF System Protection	257	(1)
Protecting Logic Circuits	257	(1)
Protecting Telco Lines	258	(3)
Inductive Load Switching	261	(1)
Bibliography	261	(2)
Grounding Practices
Introduction	263	(1)
Terms and Codes	263	(1)
The Need for Grounding	263	(5)
Equipment Grounding	264	(1)
System Grounding	264	(3)
The Grounding Electrode	267	(1)
Earth Electrode	268	(1)
Establishing an Earth Ground	268	(12)
Grounding Interface	268	(5)
Ground Electrode Testing	273	(1)
Chemical Ground Rods	273	(1)
Ufer Ground System	274	(3)
Bonding Ground-System Elements	277	(1)
Exothermic Bonding	277	(1)
Ground-System Inductance	278	(2)
References	280	(1)
Bibliography	281	(2)
Grounding Tower Elements
Introduction	283	(1)
Ground-Wire Dressing	283	(1)
Facility Ground Interconnection	284	(4)
Personnel Protection	285	(3)
Grounding on Bare Rock	288	(1)
Rock-Based Radial Elements	288	(1)
Transmission-System Grounding	289	(3)
Transmission Line	289	(1)
Cable Considerations	289	(1)
Satellite Antenna Grounding	290	(2)
References	292	(1)
Facility Ground-System Design
Introduction	293	(1)
Bulkhead Grounding	293	(10)
Bulkhead Panel	297	(2)
Lightning Protectors	299	(1)
Typical Installation	300	(2)
Checklist for Proper Grounding	302	(1)
AC System Grounding Practices	303	(11)
Building Codes	303	(1)
Single-Point Ground	304	(1)
Isolated Grounding	304	(1)
Separately Derived Systems	305	(1)
Grounding Terminology	305	(1)
Facility Ground System	306	(3)
Grounding Conductor Size	309	(2)
High-Frequency Effects	311	(1)
Power-Center Grounding	311	(2)
Isolation Transformers	313	(1)
Grounding Equipment Racks	314	(2)
Grounding Signal Cables	316	(4)
Analyzing Noise Currents	316	(1)
Types of Noise	317	(1)
Noise Control	318	(2)
Patch-Bay Grounding	320	(1)
Cable Routing	321	(1)
Overcoming Ground-System Problems	322	(1)
References	322	(1)
Bibliography	322	(3)
Standby Power Systems
Introduction	325	(1)
Blackout Effects	325	(1)
Standby Power Options	326	(10)
Dual-Feeder System	326	(2)
Peak Power Shaving	328	(1)
Advanced System Protection	329	(1)
Choosing a Generator	329	(3)
Generator Types	332	(1)
UPS Systems	333	(1)
Standby Power-System Noise	333	(1)
Batteries	334	(1)
Terms	334	(1)
Sealed Lead-Acid Battery	335	(1)
References	336	(1)
Bibliography	336	(1)
Designing for Fault-Tolerance
Introduction	337	(1)
Critical System Bus	337	(4)
Power-Distribution Options	338	(2)
Plant Configuration	340	(1)
Plant Maintenance	341	(3)
Switchgear Maintenance	342	(1)
Ground-System Maintenance	342	(2)
References	344	(1)
Bibliography	344	(1)
The Efficient Use of Energy
Introduction	345	(1)
Energy Usage	345	(1)
Peak Demand	346	(1)
Load Factor	347	(1)
Power Factor	347	(2)
References	349	(1)
Bibliography	349	(2)
Safety and Protection Systems
Introduction	351	(2)
Facility Safety Equipment	351	(2)
Electric Shock	353	(8)
Effects on the Human Body	353	(2)
Circuit-Protection Hardware	355	(3)
Working with High Voltage	358	(1)
First Aid Procedures	358	(2)
Shock in Progress	360	(1)
Shock No Longer in Progress	360	(1)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls	361	(6)
Health Risk	361	(1)
Governmental Action	362	(1)
PCB Components	362	(2)
Identifying PCB Components	364	(1)
Labeling PCB Components	364	(1)
Record-Keeping	365	(1)
Disposal	366	(1)
Proper Management	366	(1)
OSHA Safety Requirements	367	(4)
Protective Covers	368	(1)
Identification and Marking	368	(1)
Extension Cords	368	(1)
Grounding	368	(1)
Management Responsibility	369	(2)
References	371	(1)
Bibliography	371	(2)
Reference Data and Tables
Standard Electrical Units	373	(3)
Standard Prefixes	374	(1)
Common Standard Units	375	(1)
Reference Tables	376	(11)
Power Conversion Factors	376	(1)
Standing Wave Ratio	377	(1)
Specifications of Standard Copper Wire Sizes	378	(1)
Celsius-to-Fahrenheit Conversion Table	379	(1)
Inch-to-Millimeter Conversion Table	380	(1)
Conversion of Millimeters to Decimal Inches	381	(1)
Conversion of Common Fractions to Decimal and Millimeter Units	382	(1)
Decimal Equivalent Size of Drill Numbers	383	(1)
Decimal Equivalent Size of Drill Letters	383	(1)
Conversion Ratios for Length	384	(1)
Conversion Ratios for Area	384	(1)
Conversion Ratios for Mass	385	(1)
Conversion Ratios for Volume	385	(1)
Conversion Ratios for Cubic Measure	386	(1)
Conversion Ratios for Electrical Quantities	386	(1)
Units Conversion Table
Quantity Conversion	387	(16)
Figure Index	403	(12)
Table Index	415	(2)
Index	417