Biological Science Vol. 2 : Evolution, Diversity, and Ecology

by Freeman, Scott

• ISBN13: 9780131502956
• ISBN10: 0131502956
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2008-01-01
• Publisher: Benjamin Cummings

Summary

For courses in general biology for majors. Biological Science is a dynamic reference that involves students in the process of scientific discovery. Infused with the spirit of inquiry, Biological Science teaches students to think like biologists and prepares them for success in their upper division courses.

Table of Contents

Biology and the Tree of Life	1	(18)
The Cell Theory	2	(2)
Are All Organisms Made of Cells?	2	(1)
Where Do Cells Come From?	2	(2)
The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection	4	(1)
What Is Evolution?	4	(1)
What Is Natural Selection?	4	(1)
The Tree of Life	5	(5)
Linnaean Taxonomy	6	(1)
Scientific Names and Terms	6	(2)
Using Molecules to Understand the Tree of Life	8	(2)
Doing Biology	10	(9)
Why Do Giraffes Have Long Necks? An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing	10	(2)
Why Are Chili Peppers Hot? An Introduction to Experimental Design	12	(3)
Where Do Humans Fit on the Tree of Life?	15	(1)
Chapter Review	16	(3)
UNIT 1 The Origin and Early Evolution of Life	19	(108)
The Atoms and Molecules of Ancient Earth	20	(26)
The Ancient Earth	20	(4)
Studying the Formation of Planets	21	(1)
When Did Chemical Evolution Take Place?	21	(3)
The Building Blocks of Chemical Evolution	24	(5)
What Atoms Are Found in Organisms?	24	(1)
How Does Covalent Bonding Hold Molecules Together?	24	(2)
How Does Ionic Bonding Hold Molecules Together?	26	(1)
Some Simple Molecules Formed from H, C, N, and O	27	(2)
Chemical Reactions, Chemical Evolution, and Chemical Energy	29	(6)
How Do Chemical Reactions Happen?	30	(1)
What Is Energy?	30	(2)
Chemical Evolution: A Model System	32	(2)
How Did Chemical Energy Change during Chemical Evolution?	34	(1)
The Composition of the Early Atmosphere: Redox Reactions and the Importance of Carbon	35	(4)
What Is a Redox Reaction?	35	(1)
Some Other Approaches to Understanding Redox Reactions	36	(1)
What Happens When Carbon Is Reduced?	36	(3)
The Early Oceans and the Properties of Water	39	(7)
Why Is Water Such an Efficient Solvent?	39	(1)
How Does Water's Structure Correlate with Its Properties?	40	(1)
Acid-Base Reactions and pH	41	(1)
What Was Water's Role in Chemical Evolution?	42	(1)
Essay The Search for Extraterrestrial Life	43	(1)
Chapter Review	44	(2)
Protein Structure and Function	46	(28)
Early Origin-of-Life Experiments	47	(1)
Was Miller Correct about Conditions on Ancient Earth?	48	(1)
Amino Acids and Polymerization	48	(8)
The Structure of Amino Acids	49	(4)
How Do Amino Acids Link to Form Proteins?	53	(3)
What Do Proteins Look Like?	56	(6)
Primary Structure	57	(1)
Secondary Structure	57	(1)
Tertiary Structure	58	(1)
Quaternary Structure	59	(1)
Folding and Function	60	(2)
Prions	62	(1)
What Do Proteins Do?	62	(12)
Proteins Have Diverse Functions in Cells	62	(1)
An Introduction to Catalysis	63	(1)
How Do Enzymes Work?	64	(6)
Was the First Living Entity a Protein?	70	(1)
Molecular Handedness and the Thalidomide Tragedy	70	(1)
Chapter Review	71	(3)
Nucleic Acids and the RNA World	74	(16)
What Is a Nucleic Acid?	75	(4)
Could Chemical Evolution Result in the Production of Nucleotides?	76	(1)
How Do Nucleotides Polymerize to Form Nucleic Acids?	76	(2)
Gel Electrophoresis and Autoradiography	78	(1)
DNA Structure and Function	79	(4)
An Introduction to X-Ray Crystallography	80	(2)
DNA Is an Information-Containing Molecule	82	(1)
Is DNA a Catalytic Molecule?	82	(1)
RNA Structure and Function	83	(2)
RNA as an Information-Containing Molecule	84	(1)
Is RNA a Catalytic Molecule?	85	(1)
The First Life-Form	85	(5)
The Human Side of Research	87	(1)
Chapter Review	88	(2)
An Introduction to Carbohydrates	90	(13)
Sugars as Monomers	91	(1)
The Structure of Polysaccharides	92	(5)
Lactose Intolerance and Galactosemia	93	(1)
Starch: A Storage Polysaccharide in Plants	94	(1)
Glycogen: A Highly Branched Storage Polysaccharide in Animals	95	(1)
Cellulose: A Structural Polysaccharide in Plants	95	(1)
Chitin: A Structural Polysaccharide in Animals	96	(1)
Peptidoglycan: A Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria	96	(1)
Polysaccharides and Chemical Evolution	96	(1)
How Do the Penicillins and Cephalosporins Kill Bacteria?	96	(1)
What Do Carbohydrates Do?	97	(6)
The Role of Carbohydrates in Cell Identity	97	(1)
The Role of Carbohydrates in Energy Production and Storage	98	(1)
Carbohydrates as Structural Molecules	99	(2)
Why Do We Have a Sweet Tooth?	101	(1)
Chapter Review	101	(2)
Lipids, Membranes, and the First Cells	103	(24)
Lipids	104	(5)
Electron Microscopy	104	(2)
What Is a Lipid?	106	(1)
A Look at Three Types of Lipids Found in Cells	106	(2)
The Structures of Membrane Lipids	108	(1)
Phospholipid Bilayers	109	(4)
Artificial Membranes as an Experimental System	109	(1)
Selective Permeability of Lipid Bilayers	110	(1)
Does the Type of Lipid in a Membrane Affect Its Permeability?	111	(1)
Why Does Temperature Affect the Fluidity and Permeability of Membranes?	112	(1)
Why Molecules Move across Lipid Bilayers: Diffusion and Osmosis	113	(3)
Membrane Proteins	116	(11)
Systems for Studying Membrane Proteins	118	(1)
How Do Membrane Proteins Affect Ions and Molecules?	118	(5)
The Molecular Basis of Cystic Fibrosis	123	(2)
Chapter Review	125	(2)
UNIT 2 Cell Structure and Function	127	(120)
Inside the Cell	128	(31)
What's Inside the Cell?	129	(13)
Prokaryotic Cells	129	(2)
Eukaryotic Cells	131	(7)
How Does Cell Structure Correlate with Function?	138	(1)
The Dynamic Cell	139	(1)
How Does a Centrifuge Work?	140	(1)
Techniques for Studying the Dynamic Cell	141	(1)
The Nuclear Envelope: Transport Into and Out of the Nucleus	142	(3)
How Are Molecules Imported into the Nucleus?	143	(1)
How Are Molecules Exported from the Nucleus?	144	(1)
The Endomembrane System: Manufacturing and Shipping Proteins	145	(4)
Entering the Endomembrane System: The Signal Hypothesis	146	(1)
Getting from the ER to the Golgi	147	(1)
What Happens Inside the Golgi Apparatus?	147	(1)
How Are Products Shipped from the Golgi?	148	(1)
The Dynamic Cytoskeleton	149	(10)
Action Filaments	150	(1)
Intermediate Filaments	151	(1)
Microtubules	152	(2)
Cilia and Flagella: Moving the Entire Cell	154	(2)
Organelles and Human Disease	156	(1)
Chapter Review	156	(3)
Cell-Cell Interactions	159	(18)
The Cell Surface	160	(3)
The Structure and Function of an Extracellular Layer	160	(1)
The Plant Cell Wall	160	(2)
The Extracellular Matrix in Animals	162	(1)
What Happens When the Extracellular Matrix Is Defective?	163	(1)
How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and Communicate?	163	(7)
Cell-Cell Attachments	165	(4)
Cell-Cell Gaps	169	(1)
How Do Distant Cells Communicate?	170	(7)
Signal Reception	170	(1)
Signal Processing	171	(1)
Signal Response	172	(2)
Signal Deactivation	174	(1)
How Do Viagra®, Levitra®, and Cialis® Work?	175
Chapter Review	174	(3)
Cellular Respiration and Fermentation	177	(25)
An Overview of Cellular Respiration	178	(5)
The Nature of Chemical Energy and Redox Reactions	179	(1)
Using Redox Reactions to Produce ATP	180	(1)
Processing Glucose: Glycolysis	180	(1)
The Krebs Cycle	180	(2)
Electron Transport	182	(1)
Methods of Producing ATP	182	(1)
Glycolysis	183	(3)
A Closer Look at the Glycolytic Reactions	183	(1)
How Is Glycolysis Regulated?	184	(2)
The Krebs Cycle	186	(4)
Converting Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA	187	(1)
How Is the Krebs Cycle Regulated?	188	(2)
What Happens to the NADH and FADH2?	190	(1)
Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis	190	(6)
Components of the Electron Transport Chain	191	(1)
The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis	192	(1)
How Is the Electron Transport Chain Organized?	193	(1)
The Discovery of ATP Synthase	194	(1)
Oxidative Phosphorylation	194	(2)
Fermentation	196	(1)
How Does Cellular Respiration Interact with Other Metabolic Pathways?	197	(5)
Processing Proteins and Fats as Fuel	197	(1)
Anabolic Pathways Synthesize Key Molecules	198	(1)
ATP Production during Exercise	199	(1)
Chapter Review	199	(3)
Photosynthesis	202	(25)
An Overview of Photosynthesis	203	(3)
Photosynthesis: Two Distinct Sets of Reactions	203	(1)
The Structure of the Chloroplast	204	(1)
Types of Plastids	205	(1)
How Does Chlorophyll Capture Light Energy?	206	(5)
Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb Light	206	(1)
How Do Researchers Measure Absorption Spectra?	207	(2)
When Light Is Absorbed, Electrons Enter an Excited State	209	(2)
The Discovery of Photosystems I and II	211	(6)
How Does Photosystem II Work?	212	(2)
How Does Photosystem I Work?	214	(1)
The Z Scheme: Photosystems I and II Work Together	215	(2)
How Is Carbon Dioxide Reduced to Produce Glucose?	217	(10)
The Calvin Cycle	217	(2)
The Discovery of Rubisco	219	(1)
How Is Carbon Dioxide Delivered to Rubisco?	220	(2)
What Happens to the Sugar That Is Produced by Photosynthesis?	222	(2)
Are Rising CO2 Levels in the Atmosphere Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis?	224	(1)
Chapter Review	225	(2)
The Cell Cycle	227	(20)
Mitosis and the Cell Cycle	228	(4)
The Cell Cycle	229	(1)
When Does Chromosome Replication Occur?	229	(1)
Discovery of the Gap Phases	230	(1)
Cell-Culture Methods	231	(1)
How Do Bacteria Divide?	232	(1)
How Does Mitosis Take Place?	232	(6)
Events in Mitosis	232	(3)
Cytokinesis	235	(2)
How Do Chromosomes Move during Mitosis?	237	(1)
Control of the Cell Cycle	238	(3)
The Discovery of Cell-Cycle Regulatory Molecules	238	(2)
Cell-Cycle Checkpoints	240	(1)
Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division	241	(6)
Properties of Cancer Cells	242	(1)
Cancer Involves Loss of Cell-Cycle Control	242	(2)
Cancer Chemotherapy	244	(1)
Chapter Review	245	(2)
UNIT 3 Gene Structure and Expression	247	(198)
Meiosis	248	(21)
How Does Meiosis Occur?	249	(9)
Karyotyping Techniques	250	(2)
An Overview of Meiosis	252	(1)
The Phases of Meiosis I	253	(2)
The Phases of Meiosis II	255	(2)
A Closer Look at Key Events in Prophase of Meiosis I	257	(1)
The Consequences of Meiosis	258	(2)
Chromosomes and Heredity	258	(1)
How Does the Separation and Distribution of Homologous Chromosomes Produce Genetic Variation?	258	(1)
The Role of Crossing Over	259	(1)
How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation?	259	(1)
Why Does Meiosis Exist? Why Sex?	260	(4)
The Paradox of Sex	261	(2)
When Do Meiosis and Fertilization Occur during the Life of an Organism?	263	(1)
Mistakes in Meiosis	264	(5)
How Do Mistakes Occur?	264	(1)
Why Do Mistakes Occur?	265	(1)
Seedless Fruits	266	(1)
Chapter Review	267	(2)
Mendel and the Gene	269	(34)
Mendel's Experiments with a Single Trait	270	(6)
What Questions Was Mendel Trying to Answer?	270	(1)
Garden Peas Serve as the First Model Organism in Genetics	270	(2)
Inheritance of a Single Trait	272	(1)
The Nature and Behavior of the Hereditary Determinants	273	(2)
Why Do Punnett Squares Work?	275	(1)
Testing the Model	275	(1)
Mendel's Experiments with Two Traits	276	(3)
Sample Size and Chance Fluctuations	278	(1)
Using a Testcross to Confirm Predictions	278	(1)
Mendel's Contributions to the Study of Heredity	279	(1)
The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance	279	(2)
Testing and Extending the Chromosome Theory	281	(6)
The Discovery of Sex-Linked Traits	281	(1)
The Discovery of Sex Chromosomes	281	(1)
X-Linked Inheritance and the Chromosome Theory	282	(1)
What Happens When Genes Are Located on the Same Chromosome?	283	(4)
Extending Mendel's Rules	287	(7)
Incomplete Dominance and Codominance	288	(1)
Multiple Alleles and Polymorphic Traits	289	(1)
Pleiotropy	289	(1)
Genes Are Affected by the Physical Environment and Genetic Environment	290	(1)
Organelle Genomes	291	(1)
Quantitative Traits	291	(3)
Applying Mendel's Rules to Humans	294	(9)
Are Alleles Recessive or Dominant?	294	(1)
Is the Trait Autosomal or Sex-Linked?	295	(2)
Does ``Genetic Determinism'' Exist?	297	(1)
Chapter Review	298	(5)
DNA Synthesis	303	(22)
DNA as the Hereditary Material	304	(3)
Is DNA the Genetic Material?	305	(2)
Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Replication	307	(4)
The Meselson-Stahl Experiment	308	(2)
The Discovery of DNA Polymerase	310	(1)
A Comprehensive Model for DNA Synthesis	311	(5)
Opening the Helix	312	(1)
Synthesis of the Leading Strand	313	(1)
Synthesis of the Lagging Strand	313	(3)
Replicating the Ends of Linear Chromosomes	316	(2)
Repairing Mistakes in DNA Synthesis	318	(2)
How Is DNA Polymerase Proofread?	318	(1)
Mismatch Repair	319	(1)
Repairing Damaged DNA	320	(5)
DNA Nucleotide Excision Repair: An Overview	320	(1)
Xeroderma Pigmentosum: A Case Study	321	(1)
Essay DNA Mismatch Repair and Cancer	322	(1)
Chapter Review	323	(2)
How Genes Work	325	(13)
What Do Genes Do?	326	(2)
The Molecular Basis of Hereditary Diseases	326	(1)
Genes and Enzymes	326	(2)
The Genetic Code	328	(6)
RNA as the Intermediary between Genes and Proteins	329	(1)
How Long Is a Word in the Genetic Code?	330	(2)
How Did Researchers Crack the Code?	332	(1)
The Evolution of the Genetic Code	333	(1)
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology	334	(4)
Exceptions to the Central Dogma	335	(1)
Chapter Review	336	(2)
Transcription and Translation	338	(24)
Transcription in Bacteria	339	(3)
RNA Polymerase Structure and Function	340	(1)
Initiation: How Does Transcription Begin in Bacteria?	340	(1)
Elongation and Termination	341	(1)
Transcription in Eukaryotes	342	(3)
The Startling Discovery of Eukaryotic Genes in Pieces	342	(1)
Toxins and Transcription	343	(1)
Exons, Introns, and RNA Splicing	344	(1)
Other Aspects of Transcript Processing: Caps and Tails	345	(1)
An Introduction to Translation	345	(2)
Ribosomes Are the Site of Protein Synthesis	346	(1)
How Does an mRNA Triplet Specify an Amino Acid?	347	(1)
The Role of Transfer RNA	347	(3)
Connecting Structure with Function	348	(1)
How Many tRNAs Are There?	349	(1)
Ribosomes and the Mechanism of Translation	350	(5)
Initiation	351	(1)
Elongation	352	(1)
Termination	353	(2)
The Molecular Basis of Mutation	355	(7)
Antibiotics That Poison the Ribosome	358	(1)
Chapter Review	359	(3)
Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria	362	(20)
Gene Regulation and Information Flow	363	(2)
Mechanisms of Regulation---an Overview	363	(1)
Metabolizing Lactose---A Model System	364	(1)
Identifying the Genes Involved in Lactose Metabolism	365	(3)
Screening Mutants---Replica Plating and Indicator Plates	365	(1)
Different Classes of Lactose Metabolism Mutants	366	(1)
Several Genes Are Involved in Metabolizing Lactose	367	(1)
The Discovery of the Repressor	368	(3)
The lac Operon	369	(1)
Testing the lac Operon Model	369	(1)
Almost Parallel Worlds: Similarities and Contrasts in Control of the trp and lac Operons	370	(1)
The Impact of the lac Operon Model	370	(1)
Catabolite Repression and Positive Control	371	(3)
How Does Glucose Influence Formation of the CAP-cAMP Complex?	372	(2)
The Operator and the Repressor---an Introduction to DNA-Binding Proteins	374	(8)
Finding the Operator	374	(1)
DNA Footprinting	374	(2)
DNA Binding via the Helix-Turn-Helix Motif	376	(2)
How Does the Inducer Change the Repressor's Affinity for DNA?	378	(1)
Future Directions	378	(1)
Control of Gene Expression in Bacterial Pathogens	378	(2)
Chapter Review	380	(2)
Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes	382	(19)
Mechanisms of Gene Regulation---an Overview	383	(1)
Eukaryotic DNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression	383	(3)
Chromatin Structure	384	(1)
Evidence that Chromatin Structure Is Altered in Active Genes	384	(1)
How Is Chromatin Altered?	385	(1)
Regulatory Sequences and Regulatory Proteins	386	(4)
Promoter-Proximal Elements	386	(1)
Enhancers	386	(2)
How Do Enhancers Work?	388	(2)
Transcription Initiation	390	(2)
Post-Transcriptional Control	392	(3)
Alternative Splicing of mRNAs	392	(1)
Translational Control	393	(1)
Post-Translational Control	393	(1)
A 50-Year Retrospective: How Does Gene Expression in Bacteria and in Eukaryotes Compare?	394	(1)
Linking Cancer with Defects in Gene Regulation	395	(6)
p53---Guardian of the Genome	395	(2)
STAT Mutations in Cancer	397	(1)
Fly Eyes and Other Strange Tales of Gene Regulation	398	(1)
Chapter Review	399	(2)
Analyzing and Engineering Genes	401	(25)
Using Recombinant DNA Techniques to Manufacture Proteins: The Effort to Cure Pituitary Dwarfism	402	(5)
Why Did Early Efforts to Treat the Disease Fail?	402	(1)
Using Recombinant DNA Technology to Produce a Safe Supply of Growth Hormone	402	(2)
How Do Plasmids Move between Cells Naturally?	404	(3)
Ethical Concerns over Recombinant Growth Hormone	407	(1)
Analyzing DNA: Did Our Ancestors Mate with Neanderthals?	407	(4)
The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)	408	(1)
Dideoxy Sequencing	409	(2)
Gene Hunting Based on Pedigree Analysis: The Huntington's Disease Story	411	(6)
How Was the Huntington's Disease Gene Found?	411	(1)
Southern Blotting	412	(4)
Genetic Testing	416	(1)
Ethical Concerns over Genetic Testing	417	(1)
Can Gene Therapy Cure Inherited Diseases in Humans? Research on Severe Immune Disorders	417	(3)
How Can Novel Alleles Be Introduced into Human Cells?	417	(1)
Using Gene Therapy to Treat X-Linked Immune Deficiency	418	(2)
Ethical Concerns over Gene Therapy	420	(1)
Biotechnology in Agriculture: The Development of Golden Rice	420	(6)
Rice as a Target Crop	421	(1)
Synthesizing β-Carotene in Rice	421	(1)
The Agrobacterium Transformation System	421	(1)
Golden Rice	422	(1)
Controversies over Genetically Modified Foods	423	(1)
Chapter Review	424	(2)
Genomics	426	(19)
Whole-Genome Sequencing	426	(5)
Recent Technological Advances	427	(1)
Which Sequences Are Genes?	428	(1)
Shotgun Sequencing and Bioinformatics	428	(3)
Bacterial and Archaeal Genomes	431	(2)
The Natural History of Prokaryotic Genomes	431	(1)
Evidence for Lateral Gene Transfer	432	(1)
Eukaryotic Genomes	433	(4)
Natural History: Types of Sequences	433	(3)
What Is a Gene Family?	436	(1)
Comparative Genomics	437	(2)
Understanding Virulence	437	(1)
Studying Adaptation	437	(1)
Gene Number and Alternative Splicing	438	(1)
Sequence Similarity and the Importance of Regulatory Sequences	439	(1)
Future Prospects	439	(6)
Functional Genomics and Proteomics	439	(2)
Medical Implications	441	(1)
Genomics and Genetic Discrimination	442	(1)
Chapter Review	443	(2)
UNIT 4 Developmental Biology	445	(48)
Early Development	446	(23)
Gametogenesis	447	(2)
Sperm Structure and Function	447	(1)
Egg Structure and Function	448	(1)
Fertilization	449	(4)
Fertilization in Sea Urchins	449	(3)
Fertilization in Mammals	452	(1)
Fertilization in Flowering Plants	452	(1)
Cleavage and Gastrulation	453	(8)
Controlling Cleavage Patterns	454	(2)
Activating the Zygotic Genome	456	(1)
Visualizing mRNAs by in Situ Hybridization	457	(1)
Gastrulation	458	(1)
Organizing the Major Body Axes	458	(1)
The Spemann-Mangold Experiments	459	(2)
Patterns of Development	461	(8)
Embryonic Development in Arabidopsis thaliana	462	(1)
An Invertebrate Model: Drosophila melanogaster	463	(1)
A Vertebrate Model: The Frog	464	(1)
Early Development in Humans	464	(1)
Making Sense of Developmental Variation and Similarity	465	(1)
Treating Human Infertility	466	(1)
Chapter Review	467	(2)
Pattern Formation and Cell Differentiation	469	(24)
Pattern Formation in Drosophila	470	(8)
The Discovery of bicoid	470	(1)
Maternal Effect Inheritance	471	(2)
The Discovery of Segmentation Genes	473	(3)
The Discovery of Homeotic Genes	476	(1)
Drosophila as a Model Organism	477	(1)
Pattern Formation in Arabidopsis	478	(3)
The Root-to-Shoot Axis of Embryos	478	(1)
Flower Development in Adults	479	(2)
Does the Genetic Makeup of Cells Change as Development Proceeds?	481	(3)
Are Differentiated Animal Cells Genetically Equivalent?	481	(1)
Regulatory Evolution	482	(2)
Human Cloning?	484	(1)
Differentiation: Becoming a Specialized Cell	484	(9)
Organizing Mesoderm into Somites	485	(1)
Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death	486	(2)
Determination of Muscle Cells	488	(1)
Human Stem Cells	489	(1)
Chapter Review	490	(3)
UNIT 5 Evolutionary Processes and Patterns	493	(88)
Evolution by Natural Selection	494	(22)
Why Darwin Gets Most of the Credit	495	(1)
The Pattern of Evolution: Have Species Changed through Time?	496	(7)
Evidence for Change through Time	496	(2)
Evidence That Species Are Related	498	(3)
How Do Biologists Distinguish Homology from Analogy?	501	(1)
Darwinism and the Pattern Component of Evolution	502	(1)
The Process of Evolution: How Does Natural Selection Work?	503	(1)
Evolutionary Theory before Darwin	503	(1)
Evolution in Action: Recent Research on Natural Selection	504	(6)
How Did Mycobacterium tuberculosis Become Resistant to Antibiotics?	504	(2)
Why Are Beak Size, Beak Shape, and Body Size Changing in Galapagos Finches?	506	(2)
Can Natural Selection Be Studied Experimentally?	508	(2)
The Nature of Natural Selection and Adaptation	510	(6)
Selection Acts on Individuals, but Evolutionary Change Occurs in Populations	510	(1)
Evolution Is Not Progressive	510	(1)
Not All Traits Are Adaptive	511	(1)
The Debate over ``Scientific Creationism''	512	(1)
Chapter Review	513	(3)
Evolutionary Processes	516	(22)
Analyzing Change in Allele Frequencies: The Hardy-Weinberg Principle	517	(3)
The Hardy-Weinberg Model Makes Important Assumptions	518	(1)
How Does the Hardy-Weinberg Principle Serve as a Null Hypothesis?	518	(2)
Natural Selection and Sexual Selection	520	(7)
Directional Selection	521	(1)
Stabilizing Selection	522	(1)
Disruptive Selection	522	(1)
Sexual Selection	523	(4)
Genetic Drift	527	(3)
Experimental Studies of Genetic Drift	528	(1)
Genetic Drift in Natural Populations	529	(1)
Gene Flow	530	(1)
Mutation	531	(2)
Mutation as an Evolutionary Mechanism	531	(1)
What Role Does Mutation Play in Evolutionary Change?	532	(1)
Inbreeding	533	(5)
Evolutionary Theory and Human Health	535	(1)
Chapter Review	536	(2)
Speciation	538	(18)
Defining and Identifying Species	539	(4)
The Biological Species Concept	539	(1)
The Morphospecies Concept	539	(1)
The Phylogenetic Species Concept	540	(1)
Species Definitions in Action: The Case of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow	541	(2)
Isolation and Divergence in Allopatry	543	(2)
Dispersal and Colonization Isolate Populations	543	(1)
Vicariance Isolates Populations	544	(1)
Isolation and Divergence in Sympatry	545	(4)
Can Natural Selection Cause Speciation Even When Gene Flow Is Possible?	546	(1)
How Can Polyploidy Lead to Speciation?	547	(2)
What Happens When Isolated Populations Come into Contact?	549	(7)
Reinforcement	549	(1)
Hybrid Zones	550	(1)
New Species through Hybridization	550	(3)
Human Races	553	(1)
Chapter Review	554	(2)
Phylogenies and the History of Life	556	(25)
Tools for Studying History: Phylogenies and the Fossil Record	556	(10)
Using Phylogenies	557	(4)
Using the Fossil Record	561	(5)
The Molecular Clock	566	(1)
The Cambrian Explosion	566	(3)
Cambrian Fossils: An Overview	567	(1)
The Doushantuo Microfossils	568	(1)
The Ediacaran Faunas	569	(1)
The Burgess Shale Faunas	569	(1)
The Genetic Mechanisms of Change	569	(4)
Gene Duplications and the Cambrian Explosion	569	(2)
Changes in Gene Expression: The Origin of the Foot	571	(2)
Adaptive Radiations	573	(2)
Colonization Events as a Trigger	574	(1)
The Role of Morphological Innovation	575	(1)
Mass Extinctions	575	(6)
How Do Background and Mass Extinctions Differ?	576	(1)
What Killed the Dinosaurs?	576	(2)
Is a Mass Extinction Event Under Way Now?	578	(1)
Chapter Review	579	(2)
UNIT 6 The Diversification of Life	581	(222)
Bacteria and Archaea	582	(25)
Why Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?	583	(5)
Bacterial Diseases	583	(1)
Bioremediation	584	(1)
Extremophiles	585	(1)
Global Change	586	(2)
How Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?	588	(4)
A Model Organism: Escherichia coli	588	(1)
Using Enrichment Cultures	589	(1)
Using Direct Sequencing	590	(1)
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies	590	(2)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Bacteria and Archaea?	592	(6)
Morphological Diversity	592	(2)
Metabolic Diversity	594	(4)
Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea	598	(9)
Bacteria	599	(1)
Spirochaeles (Spirochetes)	599	(1)
Chlamydiales	599	(1)
High-GC Gram Positives	600	(1)
Cyanobacteria	600	(1)
Low-GC Gram Positives	601	(1)
Proteobacteria	601	(1)
Lateral Gene Transfer and Metabolic Diversity in Bacteria	602	(1)
Archaea	602	(1)
Crenarchaeota	603	(1)
Euryarchaeota	603	(1)
Antibiotics and the Evolution of Drug Resistance	604	(1)
Chapter Review	605	(2)
Protists	607	(30)
Why Do Biologists Study Protists?	608	(4)
Impacts on Human Health and Welfare	608	(2)
Ecological Importance of Protists	610	(2)
How Do Biologists Study Protists?	612	(5)
Microscopy: Studying Cell Structure	612	(1)
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies	612	(2)
How Should We Name the Major Branches on the Tree of Life?	614	(1)
Combining Data from Microscopy and Phylogenies: Understanding the Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts	615	(2)
Discovering New Lineages via Direct Sequencing	617	(1)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protists?	617	(10)
A Model Organism: Dictyostelium discoideum	618	(1)
Morphological Diversity	619	(2)
How Do Protists Find Food?	621	(2)
How Do Protists Move?	623	(1)
How Do Protists Reproduce?	624	(3)
Key Lineages of Protists	627	(10)
Excavata	627	(1)
Excavata Diplomonadida	627	(1)
Excavata Parabasalida	628	(1)
Discristata	628	(1)
Discristata Euglenida	628	(1)
Alveolata	629	(1)
Alveolata Ciliata	629	(1)
Alveolata Dinoflagellata	629	(1)
Alveolata Apicomplexa	630	(1)
Stramenopila (Heterokonta)	630	(1)
Stramenopila Oomycota	630	(1)
Stramenopila Diatoms	631	(1)
Stramenopila Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)	631	(1)
Cercozoa	632	(1)
Cercozoa Foraminifera	632	(1)
Plantae	632	(1)
Rhodophyta (Red Algae)	633	(1)
Amoebozoa	633	(1)
Myxogastrida (Plasmodial Slime Molds)	633	(1)
Revolutions in Science	634	(1)
Chapter Review	634	(3)
Green Plants	637	(37)
Why Do Biologists Study the Green Plants?	638	(5)
Plants Provide Ecosystem Services	638	(1)
Agricultural Research: Domestication and Selective Breeding	639	(1)
Plant-Based Fuels and Fibers	640	(2)
Bioprospecting	642	(1)
How Do Biologists Study Green Plants?	643	(5)
A Model Organism: Arabidopsis thaliana	643	(2)
Using the Fossil Record	645	(2)
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies	647	(1)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Green Plants?	648	(13)
The Transition to Land, I: How Did Plants Adapt to Dry Conditions?	648	(3)
The Transition to Land, II: How Do Plants Reproduce in Dry Conditions?	651	(7)
The Angiosperm Radiation	658	(3)
Key Lineages of Green Plants	661	(13)
Green Algae	661	(1)
Ulvobionta	662	(1)
Coleochaetales	662	(1)
Charales (Stoneworts)	663	(1)
Nonvascular Plants (Bryophytes)	663	(1)
Hepaticophyta (Liverworts)	663	(1)
Anthocerophyta (Hornworts)	664	(1)
Bryophyta (Mosses)	664	(1)
Seedless Vascular Plants	665	(1)
Lycophyta (Lycophytes, or Club Mosses)	665	(1)
Psilotophyta (Whisk Ferns)	666	(1)
Sphenophyta (or Equisetophyta) (Horsetails)	666	(1)
Pteridophyta (Ferns)	667	(1)
Seed Plants	667	(1)
Gnetophyta (Gnetophytes)	668	(1)
Cycadophyta (Cycads)	668	(1)
Ginkgophyta (Ginkgoes)	669	(1)
Coniferophyta (Conifers)	669	(1)
Anthophyta (Angiosperms)	670	(1)
Genetic Diversity in Crop Plants	671	(1)
Chapter Review	672	(2)
Fungi	674	(24)
Why Do Biologists Study Fungi?	675	(2)
Fungi Feed Land Plants	675	(1)
Fungi Speed the Carbon Cycle on Land	675	(1)
Fungi Have Important Economic Impacts	676	(1)
How Do Biologists Study Fungi?	677	(7)
Analyzing Morphological Traits	678	(1)
A Model Organism: Saccharomyces cerevisiae	679	(1)
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies	680	(2)
Experimental Studies of Mutualism	682	(2)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Fungi?	684	(6)
Fungi Participate in Several Types of Mutualisms	684	(2)
Adaptations That Make Fungi Effective Decomposers	686	(1)
Variation in Life Cycles	687	(3)
Key Lineages of Fungi	690	(8)
Chytridiomycota (Chytrids)	691	(1)
Zygomycota Mucorales and Other Basal Lineages	691	(1)
Glomeromycota (AMF)	692	(1)
Basidiomycota (Club Fungi)	693	(1)
Ascomycota (Sac Fungi)	693	(1)
Ascomycota Lichen-Formers	693	(1)
Ascomycota Non-Lichen-Formers	694	(1)
Why Are Frogs Dying?	695	(1)
Chapter Review	695	(3)
An Introduction to Animals	698	(26)
Why Do Biologists Study Animals?	699	(1)
How Do Biologists Study Animals?	700	(10)
Analyzing Comparative Morphology	700	(2)
A Model Organism: Hydra	702	(6)
Using the Fossil Record	708	(1)
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies	708	(2)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Animals?	710	(8)
Feeding	710	(3)
Movement	713	(2)
Reproduction and Life Cycles	715	(3)
Key Lineages of Animals	718	(6)
Choanoflagellates (Collar Flagellates)	718	(1)
Porifera (Sponges)	719	(1)
Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones, Hydroids, Sea Fans)	719	(1)
Ctenophora (Comb Jellies)	720	(1)
Acoelomorpha	721	(1)
Coral Bleaching	721	(1)
Chapter Review	722	(2)
Protostome Animals	724	(25)
Why Do Biologists Study Protostomes?	725	(3)
Model Organisms: Caenorhabditis and Drosophila	725	(1)
Crustaceans and Mollusks Are Important Animals in Marine Ecosystems	726	(1)
Insects, Spiders, and Mites Are Important Animals in Terrestrial Ecosystems	726	(2)
How Do Biologists Study Protostomes?	728	(3)
Analyzing Morphological Traits	728	(2)
Using the Fossil Record	730	(1)
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies	730	(1)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protostomes?	731	(3)
Feeding	732	(1)
Movement	733	(1)
Reproduction and Life Cycles	734	(1)
Key Lineages: Lophotrochozoans	734	(6)
Rotifera (Rotifers)	735	(1)
Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)	736	(1)
Annelida (Segmented Worms)	737	(1)
Mollusca (Mollusks)	738	(1)
Mollusca Bivalvia (Clams, Mussels, Scallops, Oysters)	738	(1)
Mollusca Gastropoda (Snails, Slugs, Nudibranchs)	739	(1)
Mollusca Polyplacophora (Chitons)	739	(1)
Mollusca Cephalopoda (Squid, Nautilus, Octopuses)	740	(1)
Key Lineages: Ecdysozoans	740	(9)
Nematoda (Roundworms)	741	(1)
Arthropoda (Arthropods)	742	(1)
Arthropoda Myriapods (Millipedes, Centipedes)	742	(1)
Arthropoda Chelicerata (Spiders, Ticks, Mites, Horseshoe Crabs, Daddy Longlegs, Scorpions)	743	(1)
Arthropoda Insecta (Insects)	744	(1)
Arthropoda Crustaceans (Shrimp, Lobster, Crabs, Barnacles, Isopods, Copepods)	744	(1)
The Role of Natural History in Biological Science	745	(1)
Chapter Review	746	(3)
Deuterostome Animals	749	(31)
Why Do Biologists Study Deuterostome Animals?	750	(1)
How Do Biologists Study Deuterostomes?	751	(5)
Analyzing Morphological Traits	751	(2)
Using the Fossil Record	753	(2)
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies	755	(1)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Deuterostomes?	756	(7)
Feeding	756	(1)
Model Organisms: Sea Urchins, Zebrafish, and Mice	757	(1)
Movement	758	(2)
The Evolution of Flight in Birds	760	(1)
Reproduction	761	(2)
Key Lineages: Echinodermata	763	(2)
Echinodermata Asteroidea (Sea Stars)	764	(1)
Echinodermata Echinoidea (Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars)	764	(1)
Key Lineages: Chordata	765	(8)
Chordata Myxinoidea (Hagfish) and Petromyzontoidea (Lampreys)	765	(1)
Chordata Chondrichthyes (Sharks, Rays, Skates)	766	(1)
Chordata Actinopterygii (Ray-Finned Fishes)	766	(1)
Chordata Actinistia (Coelacanths) and Dipnoi (Lungfish)	767	(1)
Chordata Amphibia (Frogs, Salamanders, Caecilians)	768	(1)
Chordata: Mammalia (Mammals)	768	(1)
Chordata Mammalia Monotremata (Platypuses, Echidnas)	769	(1)
Chordata Mammalia Marsupiala (Marsupials)	769	(1)
Chordata Mammalia Eutheria (Placental Mammals)	770	(1)
Chordata: Reptilia (Turtles, Snakes and Lizards, Crocodiles, Birds)	770	(1)
Chordata Reptilia Testudinia (Turtles, Tortoises)	771	(1)
Chordata Reptilia Lepidosauria (Lizards, Snakes)	771	(1)
Chordata Reptilia Crocodilia (Crocodiles, Alligators)	772	(1)
Chordata Reptilia Aves (Birds)	772	(1)
Key Lineages: The Hominin Radiation	773	(7)
The Primates	773	(1)
Fossil Humans	774	(2)
The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis	776	(1)
So Human an Animal	777	(1)
Chapter Review	778	(2)
Viruses	780	(23)
Why Do Biologists Study Viruses?	781	(2)
Recent Viral Epidemics in Humans	781	(1)
Current Viral Epidemics in Humans: HIV	782	(1)
How Do Biologists Study Viruses?	783	(10)
Analyzing Morphological Traits	784	(1)
How Are Vaccines Developed?	785	(3)
Analyzing the Phases of the Lytic Cycle	788	(4)
HIV Drug Cocktails and the Evolution of Drug Resistance	792	(1)
What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Viruses?	793	(3)
The Nature of the Viral Genetic Material	793	(1)
Where Did Viruses Come From?	794	(1)
Emerging Viruses, Emerging Diseases	794	(1)
Where Did HIV Originate?	795	(1)
Key Lineages of Viruses	796	(7)
Double-Stranded DNA (dsDNA) Viruses	797	(1)
RNA Reverse-Transcribing Viruses (Retroviruses)	797	(1)
Double-Stranded RNA (dsRNA) Viruses	798	(1)
Negative-Sense Single-Stranded RNA ([--]ssRNA) Viruses	798	(1)
Positive-Sense Single-Stranded RNA ([+]ssRNA) Viruses	799	(1)
The SARS Outbreak	799	(1)
Chapter Review	800	(3)
UNIT 7 How Plants Work	803	(130)
Plant Form and Function	804	(24)
The Diversity of Plant Form	805	(6)
The Diversity of Roots: North American Prairie Plants	806	(1)
The Diversity of Shoots: Hawaiian Silverswords	807	(4)
Plant Cells and Tissues	811	(7)
The Diversity of Plant Cells	812	(1)
Plant Poisons and the Cost of Defense	813	(2)
The Diversity of Plant Tissues	815	(3)
The Anatomy of Plant Growth	818	(10)
Primary Growth: The Root System	819	(1)
Primary Growth: The Shoot System	820	(1)
Secondary Growth	821	(3)
Tree-Ring Studies	824	(1)
Wood as a Structural Material	825	(1)
Chapter Review	825	(3)
Water and Sugar Transport in Plants	828	(24)
Water Potential and Cell-to-Cell Movement	829	(5)
What Factors Affect Water Potential?	829	(1)
Calculating Water Potential	830	(1)
Water Potentials in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere	830	(2)
How Do Plants Adapt to Dry Soils?	832	(1)
How Do Plants Adapt to Salty Soils?	833	(1)
Root Pressure and Short-Distance Transport	834	(1)
Transpiration and Long-Distance Water Transport	835	(7)
The Cohesion-Tension Theory	836	(5)
Water Absorption and Water Loss	841	(1)
Translocation	842	(10)
The Anatomy of Phloem	843	(1)
The Pressure-Flow Hypothesis	844	(1)
Phloem Loading	845	(1)
How Are Solutes Transported across Membranes?	845	(3)
Phloem Unloading	848	(1)
Irrigated Agriculture	849	(1)
Chapter Review	849	(3)
Plant Nutrition	852	(19)
Nutritional Requirements	853	(3)
Essential Nutrients	853	(2)
Nutrient Deficiencies	855	(1)
Soil	856	(3)
Soil Conservation	856	(2)
Nutrient Availability	858	(1)
Nutrient Uptake	859	(4)
Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake	859	(2)
Mechanisms of Ion Exclusion	861	(1)
Can Phytoremediation Help Clean Up Contaminated Soils?	862	(1)
Nitrogen Fixation	863	(1)
How Do Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Colonize Plant Roots?	863	(1)
How Do Host Plants Respond to Contact from a Symbiotic Bacterium?	863	(1)
Nutritional Adaptations of Plants	864	(7)
Epiphytic Plants	865	(1)
Parasitic Plants	865	(2)
Carnivorous Plants	867	(1)
Why Are Bogs So Nutrient Poor?	867	(1)
Tropical Soils	868	(1)
Chapter Review	869	(2)
Sensory Systems in Plants	871	(17)
Sensing Light	872	(6)
What Do Plants See?	872	(3)
How Do Plants See?	875	(2)
From Perception to Response: Signal Transduction	877	(1)
Gravity Perception	878	(1)
The Statolith Hypothesis	878	(1)
Is the Gravity Sensor a Transmembrane Protein?	879	(1)
How Do Plants Respond to Wind and Touch?	879	(3)
An Introduction to Electrical Signaling	880	(1)
Action Potentials	881	(1)
How Does the Venus Flytrap Close?	881	(1)
How Do Plants Sense Attacks by Parasites?	882	(6)
The Gene-for-Gene Hypothesis	882	(1)
Why Do So Many Resistance Genes and Alleles Exist?	883	(2)
Can Plants Tell Time?	885	(1)
Chapter Review	886	(2)
Communication: Chemical Signals	888	(22)
Plant Hormones---An Overview	888	(3)
Auxin and Phototropism	891	(3)
The Cholodny-Went Hypothesis	891	(1)
Isolating and Characterizing Auxin	892	(1)
How Does Auxin Produce the Phototropic Response?	893	(1)
Auxin and Apical Dominance	894	(2)
Polar Transport of Auxin	895	(1)
An Overview of Auxin Action	896	(1)
Cytokinins and Cell Division	896	(2)
The Use of Hormones to Grow Plant Cells in Culture	897	(1)
Gibberellins and ABA: Growth and Dormancy	898	(4)
Gibberellins Stimulate Shoot Elongation	898	(1)
Gibberellins and ABA Interact during Seed Dormancy and Germination	899	(2)
ABA Closes Guard Cells in Stomata	901	(1)
Ethylene and Senescence	902	(2)
Salicylic Acid, Systemin, and Pheromones: Defense Signals	904	(6)
Salicylic Acid Extends the Hypersensitive Response to Pathogens	904	(1)
Systemin Leads to the Production of Insecticides	905	(1)
Pheromones Released from Wounds Recruit Help from Wasps	906	(1)
Hormones as Herbicides	907	(1)
Chapter Review	907	(3)
Plant Reproduction	910	(23)
An Introduction to Plant Reproduction	911	(3)
Sexual Reproduction	911	(1)
Plant Life Cycles	912	(1)
Asexual Reproduction	912	(2)
Reproductive Structures	914	(5)
When Does Flowering Occur?	915	(1)
Is There a Flowering Hormone?	915	(1)
The General Structure of the Flower	916	(1)
Producing the Female Gametophyte	917	(1)
Producing the Male Gametophyte	918	(1)
Pollination and Fertilization	919	(4)
Pollination	919	(1)
Selfing, Outcrossing, and Self-Incompatibility	920	(2)
Fertilization	922	(1)
The Seed	923	(10)
Embryogenesis	923	(1)
The Role of Drying in Seed Maturation	924	(1)
Pure and Applied Science	924	(1)
Fruit Development and Seed Dispersal	925	(1)
Seed Dormancy	925	(2)
Seed Germination	927	(2)
Why Do Wasps Try to Mate with Hammer Orchids?	929	(1)
Chapter Review	930	(3)
UNIT 8 How Animals Work	933	(210)
Animal Form and Function	934	(21)
Form, Function, and Adaptation	935	(2)
Trade-Offs	935	(2)
Adaptation and Acclimatization	937	(1)
Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with Function?	937	(4)
Tissues	937	(2)
Organs and Systems	939	(2)
How Does Body Size Affect Animal Physiology?	941	(4)
Surface Area/Volume Relationships	941	(3)
Do All Aspects of an Animal's Body Increase in Size Proportionately?	944	(1)
Homeostasis	945	(1)
Regulation and Feedback	946	(1)
How Do Animals Regulate Body Temperature?	946	(9)
Gaining and Losing Heat	947	(2)
A Closer Look at Torpor and Hibernation	949	(2)
Ectothermy Versus Endothermy	951	(1)
Is Fever Adaptive?	952	(1)
Chapter Review	952	(3)
Water and Electrolyte Balance in Animals	955	(22)
Osmoregulation and Osmotic Stress	956	(2)
Water and Electrolyte Balance in Aquatic Environments	958	(4)
How Do Sharks Osmoregulate?	958	(2)
Passive and Active Transport: A Quick Review	960	(1)
How Do Salmon Osmoregulate?	960	(2)
Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Insects	962	(3)
How Do Insects Minimize Water Loss from the Body Surface?	962	(1)
Types of Nitrogenous Wastes: Impact on Water Balance	963	(1)
Maintaining Homeostasis: The Excretory System	963	(2)
Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Vertebrates	965	(12)
The Structure of the Kidney	966	(1)
Filtration: The Renal Corpuscle	966	(2)
Reabsorption: The Proximal Tubule	968	(1)
Creating an Osmotic Gradient: The Loop of Henle	969	(3)
Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: The Distal Tubule and the Collecting Duct	972	(1)
Life in the Desert	973	(2)
Chapter Review	975	(2)
Animal Nutrition	977	(22)
Nutritional Requirements	978	(3)
Meeting Basic Needs	978	(1)
Nutrition and Athletic Performance	979	(2)
Obtaining Food: The Structure and Function of Mouthparts	981	(3)
How Are Nutrients Digested and Absorbed?	984	(9)
The Mouth and Esophagus	986	(1)
The Stomach	986	(3)
The Small Intestine	989	(4)
The Large Intestine	993	(1)
Nutritional Homeostasis---Glucose as a Case Study	993	(6)
Insulin's Role in Homeostasis	994	(1)
The Type II Diabetes Mellitus Epidemic	995	(1)
Cholesterol, Diet, and Disease	996	(1)
Chapter Review	997	(2)
Gas Exchange and Circulation	999	(27)
Air and Water as Respiratory Media	999	(3)
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Air?	1000	(1)
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Water?	1001	(1)
Organs of Gas Exchange	1002	(7)
Design Parameters: The Law of Diffusion	1002	(1)
How Do Gills Work?	1003	(1)
How Do Tracheae Work?	1004	(1)
How Do Lungs Work?	1005	(3)
Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Premature Infants	1008	(1)
Homeostatic Control of Ventilation	1009	(1)
Blood	1009	(4)
Oxygen Delivery: The Bohr Effect	1010	(1)
CO2 Transport and the Buffering of Blood pH	1011	(1)
Homeostatic Control of Oxygen-Carrying Capacity	1012	(1)
Blood Doping and Erythropoeitin Abuse by Athletes	1013	(1)
The Circulatory System	1013	(13)
Open Circulatory Systems	1014	(1)
Closed Circulatory Systems	1014	(2)
The Heart	1016	(4)
Hypertension and the Measurement of Blood Pressure	1020	(1)
Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow	1021	(2)
Smoking and Lung Function	1023	(1)
Chapter Review	1024	(2)
Electrical Signals in Animals	1026	(26)
Principles of Electrical Signaling	1027	(6)
The Anatomy of a Neuron	1027	(1)
An Introduction to Membrane Potentials	1028	(1)
The Resting Potential	1029	(1)
Using the Nernst and Goldman Equations	1030	(1)
Using Microelectrodes to Measure Membrane Potentials	1031	(1)
What Is an Action Potential?	1032	(1)
Dissecting the Action Potential	1033	(5)
Distinct Ion Currents Are Responsible for Depolarization and Repolarization	1033	(1)
Voltage-Gated Channels	1033	(3)
The Role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump	1036	(1)
How Is the Action Potential Propagated?	1036	(2)
The Synapse	1038	(6)
What Do Neurotransmitters Do?	1040	(1)
Postsynaptic Potentials and Summation	1041	(1)
What Happens When Ligand-Gated Channels Are Defective?	1042	(2)
The Vertebrate Nervous System	1044	(8)
A Closer Look at the Peripheral Nervous System	1044	(1)
Functional Anatomy of the CNS	1044	(2)
How Does Memory Work?	1046	(3)
Can Brain Tissue Transplants Help People with Parkinson's Disease?	1049	(1)
Chapter Review	1050	(2)
Animal Sensory Systems and Movement	1052	(24)
How Do Sensory Organs Convey Information to the Brain?	1053	(2)
Senses That Humans Don't Have	1054	(1)
Sensory Transduction	1054	(1)
Transmitting Information to the Brain	1055	(1)
Hearing	1055	(4)
How Do Sensory Cells Respond to Sound Waves and Other Forms of Pressure?	1055	(2)
The Mammalian Ear	1057	(1)
Sensory Worlds: What Do Other Animals Hear?	1058	(1)
Vision	1059	(5)
The Vertebrate Eye	1060	(1)
Vertebrate versus Cephalopod Eyes	1061	(2)
Sensory Worlds: Do Other Animals See Color?	1063	(1)
Taste and Smell	1064	(2)
Taste: Detecting Molecules in the Mouth	1064	(1)
Olfaction: Detecting Molecules in the Air	1065	(1)
Movement	1066	(10)
Skeletons	1067	(1)
How Do Muscles Contract?	1068	(5)
Sprinters and Marathoners---Born or Made?	1073	(1)
Chapter Review	1074	(2)
Chemical Signals in Animals	1076	(23)
Cataloging Hormone Structure and Function	1077	(4)
How Do Researchers Identify a Hormone?	1078	(1)
Chemical Characteristics of Hormones	1079	(1)
The Human Endocrine System---An Overview	1080	(1)
What Do Hormones Do?	1081	(7)
A Closer Look at Thyroxine and the Thyroid Gland	1082	(1)
How Do Hormones Coordinate Responses to Environmental Change?	1082	(2)
How Do Hormones Direct Developmental Processes?	1084	(1)
How Are Hormones Involved in Homeostasis?	1084	(3)
Is Human Obesity Caused by Leptin Deficiency?	1087	(1)
How Is the Production of Hormones Regulated?	1088	(3)
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland	1088	(3)
Control of Epinephrine by Sympathetic Nerves	1091	(1)
How Do Hormones Act on Target Cells?	1091	(8)
Steroid Hormones and Intracellular Receptors	1091	(2)
Hormones That Bind to Cell-Surface Receptors	1093	(3)
Do Humans Produce Pheromones?	1096	(1)
Chapter Review	1097	(2)
Animal Reproduction	1099	(21)
Asexual and Sexual Reproduction	1100	(2)
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction	1100	(1)
Switching Reproductive Modes: A Case History	1100	(1)
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction: Gametogenesis	1101	(1)
Fertilization and Egg Development	1102	(4)
External Fertilization	1102	(1)
Internal Fertilization and Sperm Competition	1103	(1)
Unusual Aspects of Fertilization	1103	(2)
Oviparity and Viviparity	1105	(1)
Reproductive Structures and Their Functions	1106	(3)
The Male Reproductive System	1106	(2)
The Female Reproductive System	1108	(1)
The Role of Sex Hormones in Mammalian Reproduction	1109	(4)
Puberty	1109	(1)
Abuse of Synthetic Steroids	1110	(1)
Female Sex Hormones and the Menstrual Cycle	1111	(2)
Human Pregnancy and Birth	1113	(7)
Major Events during Pregnancy	1114	(1)
How Does the Mother Nourish the Fetus?	1115	(1)
Birth	1116	(1)
Contraception	1117	(1)
Chapter Review	1118	(2)
The Immune System in Animals	1120	(23)
Innate Immunity	1121	(3)
Barriers to Entry	1121	(1)
The Innate Immune Response	1122	(2)
The Acquired Immune Response: Recognition	1124	(8)
An Introduction to Lymphocytes and the Immune System	1124	(1)
The Discovery of B Cells and T Cells	1125	(1)
Antigen Recognition and Clonal Selection	1125	(3)
How Are Monoclonal Antibodies Produced?	1128	(4)
How Does the Immune System Distinguish Self from Nonself?	1132	(1)
The Acquired Immune Response: Activation	1132	(3)
Antigen Presentation by MHC Proteins: Activating T Cells	1133	(1)
B-Cell Activation and Antibody Secretion	1134	(1)
Antigen Presentation by Infected Cells: A Signal for Action by CD8+T Cells	1135	(1)
The Acquired Immune Response: Culmination	1135	(8)
Killing Bacteria	1135	(1)
Destroying Viruses	1135	(1)
Why Does the Immune System Reject Foreign Tissues and Organs?	1136	(1)
Responding to Future Infections: Immunological Memory	1137	(1)
The ELISA Test	1138	(1)
Allergies	1139	(1)
Chapter Review	1140	(3)
UNIT 9 Ecology	1143
An Introduction to Ecology	1144	(22)
Areas of Ecological Study	1145	(1)
Organismal Ecology	1145	(1)
Population Ecology	1145	(1)
Community Ecology	1146	(1)
Ecosystem Ecology	1146	(1)
How Do Ecology and Conservation Efforts Interact?	1146	(1)
The Nature of the Environment	1146	(3)
Climate	1147	(2)
Types of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems	1149	(11)
Terrestrial Biomes	1150	(5)
Aquatic Environments	1155	(2)
Thermoclines and Lake Turnover	1157	(3)
Deep-Sea Life	1160	(1)
Biogeography	1160	(6)
The Role of History	1161	(1)
Biotic Factors	1161	(1)
Abiotic Factors	1162	(2)
Battling Invasive Species	1164	(1)
Chapter Review	1164	(2)
Behavior	1166	(26)
Types of Behavior---An Overview	1167	(5)
Fixed Action Patterns	1168	(1)
A Closer Look at Behavior Genetics	1169	(2)
Conditional Strategies	1171	(1)
Learning	1172	(5)
Simple Types of Learning: Classical Conditioning and Imprinting	1172	(1)
More Complex Types of Learning: Birdsong	1173	(1)
Can Animals Think?	1174	(1)
What Is the Adaptive Significance of Learning?	1175	(2)
How Animals Act: Hormonal Control	1177	(1)
Communication	1178	(5)
Modes of Communication	1179	(1)
A Case History: The Honeybee Dance	1180	(1)
Honesty and Deceit in Communication	1181	(2)
Orientation, Navigation, and Migration	1183	(2)
Migration: Why Do Animals Move with a Change of Seasons?	1184	(1)
Navigation: How Do Animals Find Their Way?	1184	(1)
The Evolution of Self-Sacrificing Behavior	1185	(7)
Do Organisms Act for the Good of the Species?	1186	(1)
Kin Selection	1186	(1)
Calculating the Coefficient of Relatedness	1187	(1)
Reciprocal Altruism	1188	(1)
Children at Risk	1189	(1)
Chapter Review	1190	(2)
Population Ecology	1192	(22)
Demography	1193	(3)
Life Tables	1193	(2)
The Role of Life History	1195	(1)
Using Life Tables to Calculate Population Growth Rates	1196	(1)
Population Growth	1196	(5)
Exponential Growth	1196	(1)
Logistic Growth	1197	(1)
Developing and Applying Population Growth Equations: A Closer Look	1197	(3)
What Limits Growth Rates and Population Sizes?	1200	(1)
Population Dynamics	1201	(5)
Population Cycles: The Case of the Red Grouse	1201	(2)
Age Structure	1203	(2)
Analyzing Change in the Growth Rate of Human Populations	1205	(1)
How Can Population Ecology Help Endangered Species?	1206	(8)
Preserving Metapopulations	1206	(1)
Using Life-Table Data to Make Population Projections	1207	(1)
Mark-Recapture Studies	1208	(2)
Population Viability Analysis	1210	(1)
What Limits Human Population Growth?	1211	(1)
Chapter Review	1211	(3)
Community Ecology	1214	(29)
Species Interactions	1214	(15)
Competition	1215	(5)
Consumption	1220	(7)
Mutualism	1227	(2)
Community Structure	1229	(7)
Clements and Gleason: Two Views of Community Dynamics	1229	(2)
Disturbance and Change in Ecological Communities	1231	(1)
What Disturbances Occur, and How Frequent and Severe Are They?	1232	(1)
Succession: The Development of Communities after Disturbance	1232	(4)
Species Diversity in Ecological Communities	1236	(7)
Global Patterns in Species Diversity	1236	(1)
Measuring Species Diversity	1237	(1)
The Role of Diversity in Ecological Communities	1238	(1)
Let-It-Burn Policies	1239	(2)
Chapter Review	1241	(2)
Ecosystems	1243	(22)
Energy Flow and Trophic Structure	1244	(8)
Global Patterns in Productivity	1244	(3)
How Does Energy Flow through an Ecosystem?	1247	(4)
Analyzing Energy Flow: A Case History	1251	(1)
Biogeochemical Cycles	1252	(7)
Biogeochemical Cycles in Ecosystems	1253	(1)
Global Biogeochemical Cycles	1254	(5)
Human Impacts on Ecosystems	1259	(6)
Global Warming	1259	(2)
Phosphate Pollution, Acid Rain, and the Ozone Hole: Hope for Ecosystem Recovery?	1261	(2)
Chapter Review	1263	(2)
Biodiversity and Conservation	1265
What Is Biodiversity?	1266	(2)
Biodiversity Can Be Measured and Analyzed at Several Levels	1266	(1)
Why Is Biodiversity Important?	1267	(1)
How Do Biologists Study Biodiversity?	1268	(4)
Quantifying Genetic Diversity	1268	(1)
Estimating the Total Number of Species Living Today	1269	(1)
Steps in Understanding Biodiversity	1269	(1)
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function	1270	(2)
Threats to Biodiversity	1272	(5)
Humans Have Affected Biodiversity throughout History	1272	(1)
Current Threats to Biodiversity	1273	(2)
How Can Biologists Predict Future Extinction Rates?	1275	(2)
Conserving Biodiversity: Biology, Sociology, Economics, and Politics	1277
The Role of Governmental and Private Agencies	1278	(1)
Conservation Strategies	1279	(1)
Looking to the Future	1279	(1)
Models for the Future: The Malpai Borderlands and Guanacaste	1280	(1)
Chapter Review	1281
Appendix	1	(1)
Glossary	1	(1)
Image Credits	1	(1)
Index	1