Bird Ecology and Conservation A Handbook of Techniques

by Sutherland, William J.; Newton, Ian; Green, Rhys E.

• ISBN13: 9780198520863
• ISBN10: 0198520867
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-08-26
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

In this intensely practical handbook, a team of leading ornithologists describe a wide range of standard methods that can be applied to the study of avian ecology and conservation. Topics covered range from surveys and tracking and handling to breeding biology, foraging behavior, and migration. Chapters on conservation techniques describe how to assess species over-exploitation, the methods available for the intensive conservation of endangered species, and the principles involved in the maintenance and restoration of habitats. This comprehensive synthesis will be essential reading for graduate students and researchers as well as a valuable resource for environmental consultants and professional conservationists worldwide. Bird Ecology and Evolution is the first title in a new series of practical handbooks which include titles focusing on specific taxonomic groups as well as those describing broader themes and subjects. William J. Sutherland is the series editor.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors	p. xvii
Bird diversity survey methods	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Designing the fieldwork	p. 3
Finding the birds	p. 4
Standardizing the effort by time and space	p. 6
Standardizing the effort by McKinnon's list method	p. 7
Atlas studies	p. 8
Estimating species richness	p. 10
Conclusion	p. 11
Bird census and survey techniques	p. 17
Introduction	p. 17
What are bird surveys and why do we need them?	p. 17
What is monitoring and why do we need it?	p. 18
Useful sources of information	p. 19
Begin at the beginning	p. 20
Population size or index?	p. 21
Survey boundaries	p. 21
Census or sample?	p. 22
Sampling strategy	p. 23
Sampling unit	p. 23
Field methods	p. 23
Accuracy, precision, and bias	p. 23
Sampling strategies	p. 27
How many sampling units?	p. 27
Which sampling units to count?	p. 27
Using stratification	p. 29
Field methods	p. 35
Mapping	p. 36
Transects	p. 38
Line transects	p. 39
Point transects	p. 40
Rules for recording birds in the field	p. 41
Choosing between line and point transects	p. 41
Detection probabilities	p. 42
Colonial birds	p. 44
Counting roosts and flocks	p. 45
Counting leks	p. 46
Counting migrants	p. 46
Capture techniques	p. 47
Tape playback	p. 50
Vocal individuality	p. 51
Conclusions	p. 52
Breeding biology	p. 57
Introduction	p. 57
Choosing study areas	p. 58
Measuring the success of individual breeding attempts	p. 58
Finding and selecting nests	p. 58
Recording the stage of a breeding attempt when it is located	p. 60
Precautions to take so that nests can be relocated for checking	p. 61
Nest checking	p. 62
Determination of chick survival for species with precocial young	p. 64
Estimation of nest success from nest check data	p. 66
Determination of the proximate causes of breeding failure	p. 67
Signs left at the nest	p. 67
Wax or plasticine eggs in the nests of wild birds	p. 68
Cameras	p. 69
Temperature loggers	p. 70
Using artificial nests to measure nest success and causes of failure	p. 71
Measuring annual productivity	p. 72
Why measure annual productivity?	p. 72
Productivity from counts after the breeding season	p. 74
Productivity from captures after the breeding season	p. 74
Intensive studies of breeding	p. 75
Indices of productivity from surveys during the breeding season	p. 76
Use of simulation models	p. 76
Timing of breeding	p. 76
Measurements of eggs and chicks	p. 78
Proximate and ultimate causes of breeding failure	p. 79
Value of experiments to disentangle ultimate and proximate causes of breeding failure	p. 79
Birds in the hand	p. 85
Introduction	p. 85
Welfare, ethical, and legislative issues	p. 86
Catching the birds	p. 87
The breeding season	p. 89
Cage traps	p. 90
Spring traps	p. 90
A couple of nestbox traps	p. 91
Noose-carpet traps	p. 91
Mist-nets	p. 92
Clap-nets and whoosh-nets	p. 94
Canon-nets	p. 94
Capture by hand	p. 94
Individual marking	p. 95
Notes on bird handling	p. 99
The bird at close quarters	p. 100
Age and molt	p. 100
Sex	p. 102
Weight	p. 103
Color, for example, UV reflectance	p. 103
Size	p. 104
Body size	p. 104
Wing	p. 104
Tail	p. 106
Tarsus	p. 106
Tarsus-and-toe	p. 108
Bill	p. 108
Total-head	p. 110
Claw, eye-ring, and other measures	p. 110
Condition	p. 110
Asymmetry	p. 110
Relative mass	p. 111
Fat reserves	p. 111
Muscle protein	p. 113
Physiological measures	p. 113
Molt and plumage	p. 113
Parasites	p. 114
Biopsy	p. 115
Estimating survival and movement	p. 119
Introduction	p. 119
Tag type and subsequent encounters	p. 120
Survival rates	p. 120
Radio-telemetry	p. 120
Capture-recapture/resighting	p. 124
Band recovery	p. 127
Movement	p. 129
Radio-telemetry	p. 129
Capture-recapture/resighting	p. 131
Band recovery	p. 133
Summary and general recommendations	p. 134
Radio-tagging	p. 141
Introduction	p. 141
Choice of techniques	p. 142
Constraints on radio tagging	p. 142
Applications and advantages	p. 143
Considerations for tag attachment	p. 145
Forward planning	p. 148
Equipment	p. 148
Mobile tracking	p. 150
Software	p. 150
Approaches	p. 151
Pilot studies	p. 151
Recording locations	p. 152
Using location data	p. 154
Demography	p. 155
The future	p. 156
Migration	p. 161
Introduction	p. 161
Migration systems	p. 161
Mark-recapture	p. 162
Morphology	p. 162
Genetic markers	p. 163
Stable isotopes	p. 163
Migration behavior and strategies	p. 165
Counting and observing migrants	p. 165
Tracking migrants	p. 166
Remote sensing: infrared device	p. 167
Remote sensing: radar	p. 167
Stopover	p. 169
Physiology of migration	p. 169
Body composition	p. 169
Energetics	p. 170
Endocrinology	p. 171
Flight in wind tunnels	p. 171
Orientation and navigation	p. 172
Emlen funnels	p. 172
Manipulating sensory input	p. 172
Displacement experiments	p. 173
Selection experiments	p. 174
Circular statistics	p. 174
Modeling migration	p. 175
Concluding remarks	p. 176
Information from dead and dying birds	p. 179
Introduction	p. 179
Terminology-definitions and explanation	p. 181
Methodology-an overview of techniques	p. 181
The postmortem examination	p. 183
Health and safety	p. 185
Postmortem examinations (necropsies)	p. 187
Laboratory investigations	p. 194
Interpretation of findings	p. 199
Legal aspects	p. 201
Conclusions	p. 203
Techniques in physiology and genetics	p. 211
Introduction	p. 211
Sampling techniques	p. 211
Ethical considerations	p. 211
Legal considerations-catching wild birds for research	p. 212
Legal considerations-scientific experiments on birds	p. 213
Housing and husbandry	p. 216
Blood sampling	p. 217
Administration of substances	p. 218
Anesthesia	p. 219
Implants	p. 219
Laparotomy	p. 220
Ecotoxicology	p. 221
Endocrinology	p. 222
Energetics	p. 224
Molecular genetics	p. 225
Diet and foraging behavior	p. 233
Introduction	p. 233
Diet composition	p. 233
Direct observation	p. 233
Nest observations	p. 235
Remains and signs	p. 235
Dropping analysis	p. 236
Pellet analysis	p. 239
Stomach analysis	p. 239
Direct observations of crop	p. 240
Regurgitates	p. 240
Cafeteria experiments	p. 240
Morphology	p. 240
Neck ligatures	p. 241
Emetics and flushing	p. 241
Isotope differences between habitats	p. 241
Determining prey size	p. 242
Direct observation fo prey size	p. 242
Determining size from prey remains	p. 242
Determining prey size from regurgitates	p. 242
Measuring fragments in pellets, droppings, or stomach	p. 242
Prey quality	p. 243
Energy content	p. 243
Prey digestibility	p. 244
Foraging behavior	p. 244
Time budgets	p. 244
Time spent feeding per day	p. 245
Night observations	p. 245
Handling time	p. 246
Intake rate and the functional response	p. 246
Interference	p. 247
Depletion	p. 247
Prey availability	p. 248
Exclosures	p. 248
Mate provisioning and brood provisioning rates	p. 249
Habitat assessment	p. 251
Introduction	p. 251
Habitat associations	p. 251
Documenting changes over time	p. 252
Protocols	p. 252
Physical environment	p. 254
Temperature and thermoregulation	p. 254
Rainfall and soil wetness	p. 255
Slope, aspect, elevation, and topography	p. 255
Type, chemistry, and penetrability of soils	p. 255
Water chemistry	p. 256
Vegetation	p. 257
Mapping of broad habitat types	p. 257
Species composition of vegetation	p. 258
Vegetation architecture	p. 258
Quantifying habitat selection	p. 260
Comparing the relative abundance of birds or records of tracked birds in each of several habitats with the relative areas of the habitats available	p. 260
Relating numbers or densities of individuals or records of tracked birds in spatial units to the habitat composition of those units	p. 262
Comparison of habitat at places used by birds with that at places that are representative of the study area or known to be unused	p. 262
Food abundance and availability	p. 263
Predator abundance	p. 265
Disturbance	p. 266
Conservation management of endangered birds	p. 269
Introduction	p. 269
Process in the restoration of endangered species	p. 269
Step one: know your species	p. 270
Step two: diagnose causes of population decline and test remedial action	p. 270
Stage three: intensive management	p. 271
Stage four: population management	p. 271
Stage five: monitoring	p. 271
Broad population management approaches	p. 272
Supplemental feeding	p. 273
Enhancing nest-sites and the provision of nest-boxes	p. 274
Disease control	p. 277
Predator control	p. 278
Intensive management of focal pairs	p. 280
Close guarding and monitoring of nests	p. 280
Clutch and brood manipulations	p. 281
Reintroduction and translocations	p. 288
Reintroduction	p. 288
Translocations	p. 290
Supportive management for bird restoration projects	p. 291
Role of captive facilities	p. 291
Model or surrogate species	p. 292
Artificial incubation and hand-rearing	p. 292
Integrated management	p. 293
Discussion	p. 293
Exploitation	p. 303
Introduction: assessment of exploitation	p. 303
Taking a conservative approach	p. 303
Minimum estimates of population size	p. 303
Estimates of harvest levels	p. 304
Population models and associated parameters	p. 304
The use of trends	p. 304
Theoretical basis for sustainable exploitation	p. 305
Logistic growth model with perfect information	p. 305
Incorporating uncertainty: potential biological removal	p. 307
A note about other methods of assessing sustainability	p. 309
Harvest control and management objectives	p. 310
Harvest management strategies	p. 310
Harvest management objectives	p. 311
Assessing harvest levels	p. 312
Total harvest (H) versus harvest rate (h)	p. 312
Harvest estimation when harvest is legal and observable	p. 312
Harvest estimation when harvest is illegal	p. 314
Measuring harvest rate	p. 315
Assessing population size	p. 316
Overview	p. 316
Coping with uncertainty	p. 316
Assessing population dynamics	p. 317
Maximum growth rate (r[subscript max])	p. 317
Other aspects of density dependence	p. 318
Other driving forces	p. 320
Model structure	p. 320
Addressing uncertainty	p. 322
Motivation	p. 322
Management experiments	p. 322
Adaptive management	p. 323
Habitat management	p. 329
Introduction	p. 329
Deciding what to do	p. 330
Monitoring	p. 333
General principles of managing habitats for birds	p. 334
Factors influencing habitat use by birds	p. 334
Taking account of the requirements of non-bird species	p. 335
Controlling unwanted plants	p. 336
Taking account of predicted climate change	p. 337
Managing grasslands	p. 337
Introduction	p. 337
Effects of cutting and burning on sward condition	p. 338
Effects of grazing on sward condition	p. 339
Minimizing nest and chick loss during management	p. 341
Using fertilizer	p. 342
Hydrology of wet grasslands	p. 343
Managing dwarf shrub habitats	p. 344
Managing forests and scrub	p. 345
Introduction	p. 345
Grazing and browsing	p. 347
Burning	p. 348
Planting and harvesting regimes	p. 349
Thinning and creating gaps	p. 350
Increasing the quantity of dead wood	p. 351
Managing deep water	p. 351
Managing wetlands	p. 352
Manipulating the proportions of open water, ruderal vegetation, and swamp	p. 352
Increasing food abundance for birds in shallow freshwater	p. 353
Increasing food abundance for birds in shallow brackish and saline water	p. 355
Increasing accessibility of food for birds in shallow water	p. 356
Providing islands and rafts	p. 357
Managing reedbeds	p. 357
Scrub	p. 360
Wet woodlands	p. 360
Managing intertidal habitats	p. 360
Managing arable land and hedgerows	p. 361
Conclusions	p. 362
Index	p. 371
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