1 INTRODUCTION

(42)

1.1 Definition of reliability

(1)

1.2 Historical development perspective

(1)

1.3 Quality and reliability

(2)

1.4 Economics and optimisation

(1)

1.5 Probability; basic laws

(6)

1.5.1 Probability distributions

(3)

1.5.2 Basic reliability distribution theory

(2)

1.6 Specific terms

(4)

1.6.1 The generalised definition of l and MTBF

(2)

1.7 Failures types

(2)

1.7.1 Failures classification

(1)

1.8 Reliability estimates

(2)

1.9 ,,Bath-tub" failure curve

(1)

1.10 Reliability of electronic systems

(15)

1.10.1 Can the batch reliability be increased?

(1)

1.10.2 What is the utility of screening tests?

(3)

1.10.3 Derating technique

(1)

1.10.4 About the testability of electronic and telecommunication systems

(1)

1.10.5 Accelerated ageing methods for equipped boards

(1)

1.10.6 Operational failures

(2)

1.10.7 FMEA/FMECA method

(1)

1.10.8 Fault tree analysis (FTA)

(1)

1.10.8.1 Monte Carlo techniques

(2)

1.10.9 Practical recommendations

(1)

1.10.10 Component reliability and market economy

(2)

1.11 Some examples

(2)

References

(6)

2 STATE OF THE ART IN RELIABILITY

(50)

2.1 Cultural features

(7)

2.1.1 Quality and reliability assurance

(2)

2.1.2 Total quality management (TQM)

(2)

2.1.3 Building-in reliability (BIR)

(1)

2.1.4 Concurrent engineering (CE)

(1)

2.1.5 Acquisition reform

(1)

2.2 Reliability building

(14)

2.2.1 Design for reliability

(1)

2.2.2 Process reliability

(1)

2.2.2.1 Technological synergies

(1)

2.2.3 Screening and burn-in

(2)

2.2.3.1 Burn-in

(3)

2.2.3.2 Economic aspects of burn-in

(1)

2.2.3.3 Other screening tests

(1)

2.2.3.4 Monitoring the screening

(4)

2.3 Reliability evaluation

(22)

2.3.1 Environmental reliability testing

(2)

2.3.1.1 Synergy of environmental factors

(2)

2.3.1.2 Temperature cycling

(2)

2.3.1.3 Behavior in a radiation field

(1)

2.3.2 Life testing with noncontinous inspection

(2)

2.3.3 Accelerated testing

(2)

2.3.3.1 Activation energy depends on the stress level

(1)

2.3.4 Physics of failure

(3)

2.3.4.1 Drift, drift failures and drift behaviour

(2)

2.3.5 Prediction methods

(1)

2.3.5.1 Prediction methods based on failure physics

(2)

2.3.5.2 Laboratory versus operational reliability

(1)

2.4 Standardisation

(1)

2.4.1 Quality systems

(1)

2.4.2 Dependability

(1)

References

(6)

3 RELIABILITY OF PASSIVE ELECTRONIC PARTS

(52)

3.1 How parts fail

(1)

3.2 Resistors

(11)

3.2.1 Some important parameters

(1)

3.2.2 Characteristics

(2)

3.2.3 Reasons for inconstant resistors [3.8]...[3.10]

100

(1)

3.2.3.1 Carbon film resistors (Fig. 3.4)

101

(1)

3.2.3.2 Metal film resistors

101

(1)

3.2.3.3 Composite resistors (on inorganic basis)

101

(1)

3.2.4 Some design rules

101

(1)

3.2.5 Some typical defects of resistors

102

(2)

3.2.5.1 Carbon film resistors

104

(1)

3.2.5.2 Metal film resistors

104

(1)

3.2.5.3 Film resistors

105

(1)

3.2.5.4 Fixed wirewound resistors

105

(1)

3.2.5.5 Variable wirewound resistors

105

(1)

3.2.5.6 Noise behaviour

105

(1)

3.3 Reliability of capacitors

105

(27)

3.3.1 Introduction

105

(2)

3.3.2 Aluminium electrolytic capacitors

107

(1)

3.3.2.1 Characteristics

108

(2)

3.3.2.2 Results of reliability research studies

110

(1)

3.3.2.3 Reliability data

111

(1)

3.3.2.4 Main failures types

111

(1)

3.3.2.5 Causes of failures

112

(1)

3.3.3 Tantalum capacitors

112

(1)

3.3.3.1 Introduction

112

(1)

3.3.3.2 Structure and properties

113

(2)

3.3.3.3 Reliability considerations

115

(1)

3.3.3.4 DC/C(0) variation with temperature

116

(1)

3.3.3.5 The failure rate and the product CU

117

(1)

3.3.3.6 Loss factor

117

(1)

3.3.3.7 Impedance at 100 Hz

117

(1)

3.3.3.8 Investigating the stability of 35 V tantalum capacitor

117

(4)

3.3.3.9 The failure rate model

121

(1)

3.3.4 Reliability comparison

121

(2)

3.3.5 Another reliability comparison

123

(1)

3.3.6 Polyester film / foil capacitors

124

(1)

3.3.6.1 Introduction

124

(1)

3.3.6.2 Life testing

125

(1)

3.3.6.3 l as a function of temperature and load

126

(1)

3.3.6.4 Reliability conclusions

127

(2)

3.3.7 Wound capacitors

129

(2)

3.3.8 Reliability and screening methods [3.37] [3.38]

131

(1)

3.4 Zinc oxide (ZnO) varistors [3.39]...[3.45]

132

(6)

3.4.1 Pulse behaviour of ZnO varistors

134

(4)

3.4.2 Reliability results

138

(1)

3.5 Connectors

138

(3)

3.5.1 Specifications profile

139

(1)

3.5.2 Elements of a test plan

140

(1)

References

141

(4)

4 RELIABILITY OF DIODES

145

(26)

4.1 Introduction

145

(1)

4.2 Semiconductor diodes

146

(8)

4.2.1 Structure and properties

146

(1)

4.2.2 Reliability tests and results

146

(2)

4.2.3 Failure mechanisms

148

(1)

a. Mechanical failure mechanisms

148

(1)

b. Electrical failure mechanisms

148

(1)

4.2.4 New technologies

149

(1)

4.2.5 Correlation between technology and reliability

150

(3)

4.2.6 Intermittent short-circuits

153

(1)

4.3 Z diodes

154

(9)

4.3.1 Characteristics

154

(1)

4.3.2 Reliability investigations and results

155

(3)

4.3.3 Failure mechanisms

158

(1)

4.3.3.1 Failure mechanisms of Z diodes

159

(1)

4.3.3.2 Design for reliability

160

(1)

4.3.3.3 Some general remarks

161

(1)

4.3.3.4 Catastrophic failures

162

(1)

4.3.3.5 Degradation failures

162

(1)

4.4 Trans-Zorb diodes

163

(1)

4.4.1 Introduction

163

(1)

4.4.2 Structure and characteristics

163

(1)

4.5 Impatt (IMPact Avalanche and Transit-Time) diodes

163

(6)

4.5.1 Reliability test results for HP silicon single drift Impatt diodes

165

(1)

4.5.2 Reliability test results for HP silicon double drift Impatt diodes

166

(1)

4.5.3 Factors affecting the reliability and safe operation

166

(3)

References

169

(2)

5 RELIABILITY OF SILICON TRANSISTORS

171

(26)

5.1 Introduction

171

(1)

5.2 Technologies and power limitations

172

(3)

5.2.1 Bipolar transistors

173

(1)

5.2.2 Unipolar transistors

173

(2)

5.3 Electrical characteristics

175

(3)

5.3.1 Recommendations

176

(1)

5.3.2 Safety Limits

176

(1)

5.3.3 The du/dt phenomenon

177

(1)

5.4 Reliability characteristics

178

(2)

5.5 Thermal fatigue

180

(2)

5.6 Causes of failures

182

(3)

5.6.1 Failure mechanisms

182

(1)

5.6.2 Failure modes

183

(2)

5.6.3 A check-up for the users

185

(1)

5.6.4 Bipolar transistor peripherics

185

(1)

5.7 The package problem

185

(1)

5.8 Accelerated tests

186

(4)

5.8.1 The Arrhenius model

187

(1)

5.8.2 Thermal cycling

188

(2)

5.9 How to improve the reliability

190

(1)

5.10 Some recommendations

191

(2)

References

193

(4)

6 RELIABILITY OF THYRISTORS

197

(18)

6.1 Introduction

197

(2)

6.2 Design and reliability

199

(8)

6.2.1 Failure mechanisms

199

(3)

6.2.2 Plastic and hermetic package problems

202

(2)

6.2.3 Humidity problem

204

(1)

6.2.4 Evaluating the reliability

204

(2)

6.2.5 Thyristor failure rates

206

(1)

6.3 Derating

207

(2)

6.4 Reliability screens by General Electric

209

(1)

6.5 New technology in preparation: SITH

210

(3)

References

213

(2)

7 RELIABILITY OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

215

(32)

7.1 Introduction

215

(4)

7.2 Reliability evaluation

219

(5)

7.2.1 Some reliability problems

219

(1)

7.2.2 Evaluation of integrated circuit reliability

219

(2)

7.2.3 Accelerated thermal test

221

(1)

7.2.4 Humidity environment

222

(1)

7.2.5 Dynamic life testing

223

(1)

7.3 Failure analysis

224

(9)

7.3.1 Failure mechanisms

224

(1)

7.3.1.1 Gate oxide breakdown

225

(1)

7.3.1.2 Surface charges

226

(1)

7.3.1.3 Hot carrier effects

226

(1)

7.3.1.4 Metal diffusion

226

(1)

7.3.1.5 Electromigration

227

(1)

7.3.1.6 Fatigue

228

(1)

7.3.1.7 Aluminium-gold system

229

(1)

7.3.1.8 Brittle fracture

229

(1)

7.3.1.9 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

229

(1)

7.3.2 Early failures

230

(1)

7.3.3 Modeling IC reliability

231

(2)

7.4 Screening and burn-in

233

(7)

7.4.1 The necessity of screening

233

(2)

7.4.2 Efficiency and necessity of burn-in

235

(2)

7.4.3 Failures at screening and burn-in

237

(3)

7.5 Comparison between the IC families TTL Standard and TTL-LS

240

(1)

7.6 Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)

240

(1)

References

241

(6)

8 RELIABILITY OF HYBRIDS

247

(30)

8.1 Introduction

247

(3)

8.2 Thin-film hybrid circuits

250

(2)

8.2.1 Reliability characteristics of resistors

250

(1)

8.2.2 Reliability of throughout-contacts

251

(1)

8.3 Thick-film hybrids

252

(5)

8.3.1 Failure types

253

(1)

8.3.2 Reliability of resistors and capacitors

254

(1)

8.3.3 Reliability of ,,beam-leads,,

254

(3)

8.4 Thick-film versus thin-film hybrids

257

(2)

8.5 Reliability of hybrid ICs

259

(2)

8.6 Causes of failures

261

(3)

8.7 Influence of radiation

264

(1)

8.8 Prospect outlook of the hybrid technology

264

(6)

8.9 Die attach and bonding techniques

270

(4)

8.9.1 Introduction

270

(1)

8.9.2 Hybrid package styles

271

(3)

8.10 Failure mechanisms

274

(1)

References

275

(2)

9 RELIABILITY OF MEMORIES

277

(36)

9.1 Introduction

277

(6)

9.2 Process-related reliability aspects

283

(5)

9.3 Possible memories classifications

288

(2)

9.4 Silicon On Insulator (SOI) technologies

290

(1)

9.4.1 Silicon on sapphire (SOS) technology

291

(1)

9.5 Failure frequency of small geometry memories

291

(1)

9.6 Causes of hardware failures

292

(4)

9.6.1 Read only memories (ROMs)

294

(2)

9.6.2 Small geometry devices

296

(1)

9.7 Characterisation testing

296

(9)

9.7.1 Timing and its influence on characterisation and test

298

(1)

9.7.2 Test and characterisation of refresh

298

(1)

9.7.2.1 Screening tests and test strategies

299

(2)

9.7.3 Test-programmes and -categories

301

(1)

9.7.3.1 Test categories

301

(1)

9.7.3.2 RAM failure modes

302

(1)

9.7.3.3 Radiation environment in space; hardening approaches

303

(2)

9.8 Design trends in microprocessor domain

305

(1)

9.9 Failure mechanisms of microprocessors

306

(4)

References

310

(3)

10 RELIABILITY OF OPTOELECTRONICS

313

(16)

10.1 Introduction

313

(3)

10.2 LED reliability

316

(2)

10.3 Optocouplers

318

(6)

10.3.1 Introduction

318

(1)

10.3.2 Optocouplers ageing problem

318

(2)

10.3.3 CTR degradation and its cause

320

(1)

10.3.4 Reliability of optocouplers

321

(2)

10.3.5 Some basic rules for circuit designers

323

(1)

10.4 Liquid crystal displays

324

(3)

10.4.1 Quality and reliability of LCDs

325

(2)

References

327

(2)

11 NOISE AND RELIABILITY

329

(10)

11.1 Introduction

329

(1)

11.2 Excess noise and reliability

330

(1)

11.3 Popcorn noise

331

(2)

11.4 Flicker noise

333

(1)

11.4.1 Measuring noise

333

(1)

11.4.2 Low noise, long life

333

(1)

11.5 Noise figure

334

(2)

11.6 Improvements in signal quality of digital networks

336

(1)

References

336

(3)

12 PLASTIC PACKAGE AND RELIABILITY

339

(24)

12.1 Historical development

339

(2)

12.2 Package problems

341

(2)

12.2.1 Package functions

342

(1)

12.3 Some reliabilistic aspects of the plastic encapsulation

343

(1)

12.4 Reliability tests

344

(8)

12.4.1 Passive tests

345

(1)

12.4.2 Active tests

346

(1)

12.4.3 Life tests

347

(2)

12.4.4 Reliability of intermittent functioning plastic encapsulated ICs

349

(3)

12.5 Reliability predictions

352

(1)

12.6 Failure analysis

353

(1)

12.7 Technological improvements

354

(3)

12.7.1 Reliability testing of PCB equipped with PEM

356

(1)

12.7.2 Chip-Scale packaging

356

(1)

12.8 Can we use plastic encapsulated microcircuits (PEM) in high reliability applications?

357

(2)

References

359

(4)

13 TEST AND TESTABILITY OF LOGIC ICS

363

(18)

13.1 Introduction

363

(1)

13.2 Test and test systems

364

(1)

13.2.1 Indirect tests

365

(1)

13.3 Input control tests of electronic components

365

(4)

13.3.1 Electrical tests

366

(1)

13.3.2 Some economic considerations

367

(1)

13.3.3 What is the cost of the tests absence?

368

(1)

13.4 LIC selection and connected problems

369

(4)

13.4.1 Operational tests of memories

370

(1)

13.4.2 Microprocessor test methods

371

(1)

13.4.2.1 Selftesting

371

(1)

13.4.2.2 Comparison method

371

(1)

13.4.2.3 Real time algorithmic method

372

(1)

13.4.2.4 Registered patterns method

372

(1)

13.4.2.5 Random test of microprocessors

373

(1)

13.5 Testability of LICs

373

(3)

13.5.1 Constraints

374

(1)

13.5.2 Testability of sequential circuits

374

(1)

13.5.3 Independent and neutral test laboratories

375

(1)

13.6 On the testability of electronic and telecommunications systems

376

(3)

References

379

(2)

14 FAILURE ANALYSIS

381

(32)

14.1 Introduction [14.1]...[14.25]

381

(2)

14.2 The purpose of failure analysis

383

(3)

14.2.1 Where are discovered the failures?

383

(1)

14.2.2 Types of failures

384

(2)

14.3 Methods of analysis

386

(6)

14.3.1 Electrical analysis

386

(1)

14.3.2 X-ray analysis

387

(1)

14.3.3 Hermeticity testing methods

388

(1)

14.3.4 Conditioning tests

388

(1)

14.3.5 Chemical means

388

(1)

14.3.6 Mechanical means

389

(1)

14.3.7 Microscope analysis

389

(1)

14.3.8 Plasma etcher

389

(1)

14.3.9 Electron microscope

389

(1)

14.3.10 Special means

390

(2)

14.4 Failure causes

392

(1)

14.5 Some examples

393

(17)

References

410

(3)

15 APPENDIX

413

(12)

15.1 Software-package RAMTOOL++ [15.1]

413

(2)

15.1.1 Core and basic module R^(3) Trecker

413

(1)

15.1.2 RM analyst

414

(1)

15.1.3 Mechanicus (Maintainability analysis)

414

(1)

15.1.4 Logistics

414

(1)

15.1.5 RM FFT-module

415

(1)

15.1.6 PPoF-module

415

(1)

15.2 Failure rates for components used in telecommunications

415

(3)

15.3 Failure types for electronic components [15.2]

418

(1)

15.4 Detailed failure modes for some components

419

(1)

15.5 Storage reliability data [15.3]

420

(1)

15.6 Failure criteria. Some examples

420

(1)

15.7 Typical costs for the screening of plastic encapsulated ICs

421

(1)

15.8 Results of 1000 h HTB life tests for CMOS microprocessors

421

(1)

15.9 Results of 1000 h HTB life tests for linear circuits

422

(1)

15.10 Average values of the failure rates for some IC families

422

(1)

15.11 Activation energy values for various technologies

423

(1)

15.12 Failures at burn-in

424

(1)

References

424

(1)

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

425

(30)

RELIABILITY GLOSSARY

455

(18)

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

473

(8)

POLYGLOT DICTIONARY OF RELIABILITY TERMS

481

(20)

INDEX

501

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Reliability of Electronic Components : A Practical Guide to Electronic Systems Manufacturing

9783540657224

3540657223

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