Black Letter Outline on Intellectual Property

by Schechter, Roger E.

• ISBN13: 9780314147387
• ISBN10: 0314147381
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2006-04-13
• Publisher: West Academic Publishing

Summary

This reference provides an overview of unfair trade practices, including the common-law and statutory basis of unfair competition, antitrust, consumer protection, regulated industries, and labor. Includes discussion of intellectual property, which is also composed of statutory and common-law elements. The text is a helpful resource for students studying business or commercial torts, intellectual property, trade regulation, unfair competition and unfair trade practices, and related subjects. Includes a thorough review of key topics and study aids.

Table of Contents

Capsule Summary	1	(54)
Perspective	55	(11)
I. BASIC THEMES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW
Scope Of Intellectual Property	66	(2)
Copyright Law	66	(1)
Patent Law	67	(1)
Trademark Law	67	(1)
The Misappropriation Doctrine	67	(1)
The Right of Publicity	67	(1)
Trade Secret Law	68	(1)
False Advertising Law	68	(1)
Sources Of Intellectual Property Law	68	(4)
The U.S. Constitution	68	(1)
Federal Statutory and Administrative Law	69	(1)
Federal Exclusivity	69	(1)
Administrative Agencies	69	(1)
Other Federal Statutes	70	(1)
State Common Law and Statutes	70	(1)
International Law	70	(2)
Major Treaties	71	(1)
Other Treaties	71	(1)
WIPO	71	(1)
Theoretical Underpinnings	72	(5)
Intellectual Property Law Protects Intangibles	72	(1)
First Sale Exhaustion	72	(1)
IP Rights Transferable	72	(1)
Intellectual Property as an Incentive	73	(2)
Non-Excludable	74	(1)
Non-Rivalrous	74	(1)
Economic Implications	74	(1)
Legal Implications---The Incentive Theory	75	(1)
Intellectual Property as Just Deserts	75	(1)
Intellectual Property Law and the Public Domain	75	(1)
Is Intellectual Property Really ``Property''?	76	(1)
Review Questions	77	(3)
II. TRADEMARKS:
The Rationale for Protecting Trademarks	80	(2)
Justifications for Broad Protection	80	(1)
Incentives for Investment and Creativity	80	(1)
Fairness to the Consuming Public	80	(1)
Commercial Morality	81	(1)
Disadvantages of Excessive Trademark Protection	81	(1)
Barriers to Entry	81	(1)
Encouragement of Wasteful Expenditures	81	(1)
Increased Problems of Commercial Communication	82	(1)
The Dual System of Trademark Protection	82	(3)
Common Features of Both Schemes	82	(1)
Obtaining Trademark Rights	82	(1)
Choosing a Proper Mark	82	(1)
Trademark Rights Specific To Limited Category of Goods	83	(1)
Permissible and Impermissible Uses of Another's Mark	83	(1)
Major Differences Between the Two Schemes	83	(2)
Reserving a Trademark	83	(1)
Obtaining Trademark Rights	83	(1)
Choosing a Proper Mark	84	(1)
Geographic Extent of Protection	84	(1)
Terminological Differences in the Two Schemes	85	(1)
Obtaining Trademark Rights	85	(10)
Affixation and its Substitutes	85	(1)
Justification for Older, Strict Affixation Requirement	85	(1)
Justification for Modern Relaxation of Affixation Requirement	85	(1)
Lanham Act Approach	86	(1)
The Requirement of Use	86	(4)
Type of Use Required	86	(1)
Amount of Use Required	87	(1)
Priority of Use Determines Trademark Rights	88	(1)
Constructive Use Under the Lanham Act	88	(1)
Constructive Use based on Foreign Trademark Applications	89	(1)
The Mechanics of Federal Registration	90	(5)
Types of Marks	90	(1)
Trademarks	90	(1)
Service Marks	90	(1)
Certification Marks	90	(1)
Collective Marks	91	(1)
Application for Registration Based on Actual Use	91	(1)
Application for Registration Based on Intent to Use	92	(1)
Opposition Proceedings	93	(1)
Cancellation Proceedings	93	(1)
Advantages of Registration	94	(1)
The Registration Symbol	94	(1)
Constructive Notice	94	(1)
Incontestability	94	(1)
Prohibition Against Infringing Imports	95	(1)
Distinctiveness and Trademark Validity	95	(14)
Inherently Distinctive Marks	95	(2)
Fanciful Marks	95	(1)
Arbitrary Marks	96	(1)
Suggestive Marks	96	(1)
Marks That May Become Distinctive	97	(9)
Descriptive Terms	97	(1)
General Principles	97	(1)
Terminology	97	(1)
Proof of Secondary Meaning	98	(1)
The Suggestive/Descriptive Distinction	98	(1)
Self-Laudatory Marks Are Descriptive	99	(1)
Deceptively Misdescriptive Terms	99	(1)
Geographic Terms	100	(1)
Geographically Descriptive Terms	100	(1)
Geographically Deceptively Misdescriptive Terms	101	(1)
Special Rule for Wines and Spirits	102	(1)
Geographic Terms Can Be Arbitrary	102	(1)
Geographic Terms Can Be Generic	103	(1)
Surnames	103	(1)
General Principles	103	(1)
Identifying Surnames	104	(1)
Right to Use One's Own Name	104	(1)
Slogans	105	(1)
Words Incapable of Distinctiveness---Generic Terms	106	(3)
Genericness Ab Initio	106	(1)
The Problem	106	(1)
A Possible Solution	107	(1)
Loss of Distinctiveness	107	(1)
Avoiding Genericness	108	(1)
Sound and Smell	109	(1)
Trade Dress	109	(10)
Distinctiveness Requirement for Trade Dress	109	(3)
Inherent Distinctiveness of Trade Dress	110	(1)
The Two Pesos Case	110	(1)
No Clear Test of Inherent Distinctiveness	110	(1)
Product Design or Configuration is Never Inherently Distinctive	111	(1)
Consumers Rarely Perceive Configuration As Source Indicator	111	(1)
Configuration Always Requires Secondary Meaning	111	(1)
Rationale of Wal-Mart Rule	112	(1)
Distinguishing Product Design From Product Packaging	112	(1)
Non-Functionality Requirement for Trade Dress	112	(6)
Utilitarian Functionality	112	(1)
Proof of Utilitarian Functionality	113	(1)
Expired Utility Patents	113	(1)
Feasible Alternative Designs	113	(1)
Advertising	114	(1)
Direct Evidence of Costs and Advantages	114	(1)
Combination of Elements	115	(1)
Burden of Proof	115	(1)
Aesthetic Functionality	115	(2)
Trade Dress Protection Conflict With Patent Policy	117	(1)
Nature of the Conflict	117	(1)
Sears--Compco: Sweeping Pre-emption	117	(1)
The Retreat from Sears--Compco	117	(1)
State Law Trade Dress Protection Now of Reduced Practical Importance	118	(1)
Special Issues Involving Colors	118	(1)
Color Combinations	118	(1)
Protection for a Single Color	118	(1)
Buildings	119	(1)
Other Problematic Trademarks	119	(3)
Terms Similar to Those Previously Used by Another	119	(1)
Deceptive Marks	120	(1)
Immoral or Scandalous Marks	121	(1)
Disparaging Marks	121	(1)
Other Impermissible Marks	122	(1)
Infringement and Counterfeiting	122	(20)
The Concept of Trademark Infringement	122	(8)
Available Causes of Action	122	(1)
Passing Off	122	(1)
Likelihood of Confusion	123	(1)
Rationale of Likelihood of Confusion Test	123	(1)
Harms From Likelihood of Confusion	123	(1)
Diversion of Sales	124	(1)
Limitation of Expansion	124	(1)
Harm to Reputation	124	(1)
Factors Probative of Likelihood of Confusion	124	(1)
Similarity of the Marks Themselves	125	(1)
Sound	125	(1)
Sight	125	(1)
Meaning	126	(1)
Strength of Plaintiff's Mark	126	(1)
Similarity of Trade Dress	126	(1)
Consumer Surveys	126	(1)
Consumer Sophistication	126	(1)
Price of the Goods	127	(1)
Evidence of Actual Instance of Confusion	127	(1)
Special Confusion Situations	127	(1)
Post-Sale Confusion	127	(1)
Initial Interest Confusion	128	(1)
Intent	129	(1)
Parody	129	(1)
Non--Competing Goods	130	(4)
Related Goods	131	(1)
Decorative Use of Trademarks on Promotional Goods	132	(1)
Confusing Terminology	132	(1)
Judicial Response to the Problem	133	(1)
Geographically Remote Users	134	(2)
Common Law	134	(1)
Good Faith	134	(1)
Remoteness	134	(1)
Lanham Act	135	(1)
Junior Use Pre-dating Registration	136	(1)
Junior User Registers First	136	(1)
Reverse Likelihood of Confusion	136	(2)
Difference From ``Forward'' Confusion	136	(1)
Nature of the Harm	137	(1)
Reverse Confusion is Actionable	137	(1)
Reverse Passing Off	138	(1)
Difference from Reverse Confusion	138	(1)
Reverse Passing Off Violates Lanham Act	138	(1)
Copyrighted Materials and the Dastar Case	139	(1)
Secondary Liability for Trademark Infringement	139	(1)
Contributory Infingement	139	(1)
Vicarious Infringement	140	(1)
Trademark Counterfeiting	140	(1)
Definition	140	(1)
Civil Penalties	141	(1)
Criminal Penalties	141	(1)
Other Forbidden Practices	141	(1)
Dilution	142	(7)
Historical Development	142	(1)
Fame Requirement	142	(2)
Factors Relevant to Fame of Mark	142	(1)
Niche Fame	143	(1)
Second Circuit Also Requires Inherent Distinctiveness	144	(1)
Dilution by Blurring	144	(4)
Blurring is Distinct From Confusion	145	(1)
Actual---Not Likely---Dilution Required	146	(1)
Proof of Blurring	146	(1)
Similarity of the Marks	146	(1)
Multi-Factor Tests	147	(1)
Survey Evidence	148	(1)
Dilution by Tarnishment	148	(1)
Affirmative Defenses and Remedies	149	(8)
First Sale Exhaustion and Resale of the Genuine Goods	149	(3)
Retailers and Dealers	149	(1)
Rebottled and Repackaged Goods	149	(1)
Repaired or Reconditioned Goods	150	(1)
Imported Goods	150	(1)
No Affiliation Between U.S. and Foreign Mark Owner	150	(1)
U.S. and Foreign Mark Owners Under Common Ownership or Control	151	(1)
Referential or Nominative Uses	152	(1)
General Test for Nominative Fair Use	152	(1)
Specific Types of Permissible Referential Use	153	(1)
Comparative Advertising	153	(1)
Dealerships, Service Outlets and Replacement Parts	153	(1)
Past Affiliation	153	(1)
Descriptive Fair Use	153	(2)
Nature of the Defense	153	(1)
Fair Use and Likelihood of Confusion	154	(1)
Trademark Abandonment	155	(1)
Abandonment Through Non-use	155	(1)
Failure to Supervise Licensees	155	(1)
Special Defenses to Dilution Claims	155	(1)
Remedies	155	(2)
Injunctive Relief	155	(1)
Monetary Relief	156	(1)
Infringement Cases	156	(1)
Dilution Cases	156	(1)
Destruction of Infringing Articles	156	(1)
Trademarks in Cyberspace	157	(4)
Domain Name Disputes	157	(3)
Dilution Remedies for Cybersquatting	157	(1)
The Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act	157	(1)
Basic Provisions	157	(1)
Gripe Sites	158	(1)
In Rem Proceedings	159	(1)
Remedies	159	(1)
The Uniform Dispute Resolution Procedure	159	(1)
Judicial Review of UDRP Determinations	160	(1)
Reverse Domain Name Hijacking	160	(1)
Use of Another's Mark in Hidden Code	160	(1)
Use of Another's Mark as a Keyword	161	(1)
Review Questions	161	(5)
III. COPYRIGHT:
The Standards of Copyrightability	166	(7)
The Constitutional Basis	166	(1)
The Statutory Subject Matter of Copyright	167	(1)
Originality	167	(4)
Originality Means Independently Created	167	(1)
Works Incorporating Pre-Existing Material	167	(1)
Parallel Independent Creation	168	(1)
Originality Means Modestly Creative	168	(1)
Single Words or Short Phrases	169	(1)
Photographs and Movies	170	(1)
Maps	170	(1)
Art Reproductions	170	(1)
Fixation	171	(1)
Live Transmissions	171	(1)
Video Games	172	(1)
Special Protection for Unfixed Musical Performances	172	(1)
Only Expressions, Not Ideas	172	(1)
The Merger Doctrine	173	(1)
Copyrightable Subject Matter	173	(12)
Literary Works	174	(1)
Fictional Characters	174	(1)
Computer Programs	174	(1)
Pictorial, Graphic and Sculptural Works	175	(4)
General Definition	175	(1)
Utilitarian Objects Not Protectable	176	(1)
Policy Basis For Denial of Protection	176	(1)
Definition of Utilitarian Objects	176	(1)
Aesthetic Features of Utilitarian Objects Protectable if Separable	177	(1)
Physically Separable Aesthetic Features	177	(1)
Conceptually Separable Aesthetic Features	177	(1)
Aesthetic Objects Incorporated Into Useful Objects	178	(1)
Design Protection Legislation	179	(1)
Musical Works	179	(1)
Sound Recordings	179	(1)
General Definition	179	(1)
Distinction Between Sound Recordings and Musical Compositions	180	(1)
Architectural Works	180	(1)
Dramatic, Choreographic and Audiovisual Works	181	(1)
Compilations	181	(1)
Originality in Compilations	181	(1)
Data Base Protection Legislation	182	(1)
Derivative Works	182	(1)
Originality in Derivative Works	182	(1)
Scope of Copyright in Derivative Works	183	(1)
Non-Copyrightable Subject Matter	183	(2)
Government Works	184	(1)
Works of the Federal Government	184	(1)
State and Local Government Works	184	(1)
Blank Forms	184	(1)
Titles, Trademarks, Commercial Prints and Labels	184	(1)
Typefaces	185	(1)
Non--U.S. Works	185	(1)
Unpublished Works	185	(1)
Published Works	185	(1)
Publication	185	(3)
Historical Significance of Publication	186	(1)
Common Law Copyright for Unpublished Works	186	(1)
Pre--1976 Definition of Publication	186	(1)
Limited Publication	186	(1)
Performances and Displays	187	(1)
General Publication	187	(1)
Current Significance of Publication	187	(1)
Common Law Copyright Abolished	187	(1)
Current Definition of Publication	188	(1)
Consequences of Publication	188	(1)
Copyright Formalities	188	(5)
Notice	188	(2)
Form of Notice	188	(1)
Works Published Before 1978	189	(1)
Works Published Between 1978 and 1989	189	(1)
Only Few Copies Lacked Notice	189	(1)
Omission Due to Publisher's Error	189	(1)
Cure Through Registration and Belated Addition of Notice	189	(1)
Works Published After 1989	190	(1)
Reasons for Including Notice Post--1989	190	(1)
Registration	190	(3)
Registration Optional	191	(1)
Evidentiary Effect of Registration	191	(1)
Registration Required for Infringement Suit	191	(1)
Registration Required for Certain Remedies	191	(1)
Registration Procedure	192	(1)
Pre-registration	192	(1)
The Problem	192	(1)
Legislative Solution	192	(1)
Deposit	193	(1)
Ownership	193	(2)
In General	193	(1)
Joint Works	193	(1)
Works Made for Hire	194	(1)
Work Prepared By Employee	194	(1)
Work Prepared By Independent Contractor Under Commission	194	(1)
Significance of Work Made for Hire Status	195	(1)
Transfers and Licensing	195	(5)
Assignments and Licenses	195	(1)
Copyright Infinitely Divisible	196	(1)
Statute of Frauds and Recordation	196	(1)
Termination of Transfers	196	(2)
Termination of Grants Made After January 1, 1978	197	(1)
Termination of Grants Made Before 1978	197	(1)
Compulsory Licenses	198	(2)
Phonorecord Reproduction of Musical Compositions	199	(1)
Cable Television License for Secondary Transmissions	199	(1)
Noncommercial Broadcasters	200	(1)
Traditional Rights of a Copyright Owner	200	(9)
The Reproduction Right	200	(3)
Scope of the Right	200	(1)
Illustrative Limitations on the Reproduction Right	201	(1)
Library Copying	201	(1)
Single Copies of Computer Software	201	(1)
Non-commercial Duplication of Musical Recordings	202	(1)
Imitative Sound Recordings	202	(1)
The Adaptation Right	203	(1)
Scope of the Right	203	(1)
Limitations on the Right	203	(1)
Photographs of Architectural Works	203	(1)
Modifications of Architectural Works	203	(1)
Family Entertainment Act	203	(1)
The Distribution Right	204	(1)
Scope of the Right	204	(1)
Limitations on the Rights	204	(1)
First Sale Exhaustion	204	(1)
Rental of Sound Recordings and Software Forbidden	204	(1)
The Performance Right	204	(4)
Scope of Right	204	(1)
Covered Works	205	(1)
Blanket Licensing	206	(1)
Illustrative Limitations on the Right	206	(1)
Performances by Teachers	206	(1)
Performances at Religious Services	207	(1)
Non--Profit Performances	207	(1)
The Homestyle Exception	207	(1)
Other Limitations on the Performance Right	208	(1)
The Display Right	208	(1)
Scope of the Right	208	(1)
Limitations on the Right	208	(1)
Special Rights of Copyright Owners	209	(3)
Moral Rights	209	(1)
Digital Performance Rights for Sound Recordings	209	(1)
Anti--Circumvention Protection	210	(2)
Device Prohibitions	210	(1)
Conduct Prohibition	210	(1)
Exceptions	211	(1)
Anti--Circumvention Rules Controversial	211	(1)
Protection of Copyright Management Information	212	(1)
Definition of Copyright Management Information	212	(1)
Substantive Prohibitions	212	(1)
Duration of Copyright	212	(4)
Current Rule	212	(1)
Previous Durational Rules	213	(3)
Original Durational Rules Under 1976 Act	213	(1)
Durational Rules Under 1909 Act	213	(1)
Transitional Rules	214	(1)
Works Published Between 1950 and 1977	214	(1)
Works Published Before 1950	214	(1)
Works Created Before 1978 and Never Published	215	(1)
Infringement	216	(6)
Access	216	(1)
Substantial Similarity	216	(4)
Similarity Must Relate to Protected Expression	216	(1)
Similarity Judged From Perspective of Ordinary Observer	217	(1)
Similarity Must Be Non-Trivial	218	(1)
Types of Substantial Similarity	218	(1)
Comprehensive Nonliteral Similarity	218	(1)
Fragmented Literal Similarity	219	(1)
Common Errors	219	(1)
Intent	220	(1)
Secondary Liability	220	(2)
Contributory Liability	220	(1)
The Grokster Decision	221	(1)
Safe Harbors for Internet Service Providers	221	(1)
Vicarious Liability	222	(1)
Fair Use	222	(3)
Relevant Factors	222	(2)
Purpose and Character of Use	222	(1)
Nature of the Copyrighted Work	223	(1)
Amount and Substantiality of Portion Used	223	(1)
Effect on Market for Copyrighted Work	223	(1)
Fair Use of Unpublished Works	224	(1)
Parody as Fair Use	225	(1)
Remedies	225	(1)
Injunctive Relief	225	(1)
Monetary Relief	225	(1)
Impoundment	226	(1)
Criminal Sanctions	226	(1)
Review Questions	226	(6)
IV. MISAPPROPRIATION & THE RIGHT OF PUBLICITY
Protection for Business Schemes	232	(3)
Elements of a Protectable Business Scheme	232	(2)
Concreteness	232	(1)
Novelty	233	(1)
Usefulness	234	(1)
Theories for Imposing Obligation to Pay for Ideas	234	(1)
Contractual Theories	234	(1)
Quasi-Contract	234	(1)
Confidential Relationship	234	(1)
Property	235	(1)
Corporate Practice With Unsolicited Ideas	235	(1)
The Common Law Misappropriation Tort	235	(3)
Historical Foundations: The INS Case	235	(1)
Facts	236	(1)
Legal Status of INS Case	236	(1)
Elements of the Tort	236	(1)
Traditional Elements	236	(1)
Requirement that Parties Be Competitors	237	(1)
Illustrative Applications of the Doctrine	237	(1)
Limited Acceptance and Disapproval of the Tort	238	(1)
The Right of Publicity	238	(7)
Theoretical Issues and the Right of Publicity	238	(2)
Elements for Publicity Claims	238	(1)
Relationship of Privacy and Publicity	239	(1)
Overview of Privacy Principles	239	(1)
Some Privacy and Publicity Claims Overlap	239	(1)
Some Privacy Claims Distinct From Publicity	239	(1)
Relationship of Trademark and Publicity	239	(1)
Who May Assert a ``Publicity'' Claim	240	(1)
Entertainers and Athletes	240	(1)
Other Famous Individuals	240	(1)
Non-famous Individuals	241	(1)
Personal Aspects Protected by the Right of Publicity	241	(1)
First Amendment Limits on Celebrity's Rights	242	(2)
The Zacchini Case	242	(1)
Post-Zacchini Tests	243	(1)
Balancing Test	243	(1)
Transformative Use Test	243	(1)
Predominant Use Test	243	(1)
Parodies and the Right of Publicity	244	(1)
Descendability	244	(1)
Narrow View---Rights Terminate on Death	244	(1)
Intermediate View---Descendible If Exploited	245	(1)
Broad View---Descendible Regardless of Exploitation	245	(1)
Duration Of Rights After Death	245	(1)
Pre-Emption Problems	245	(5)
Section 301 of the Copyright Statute	246	(1)
Protection of Subject Matter Not Within Copyright	246	(1)
Granting Rights Not Provided by Copyright	246	(1)
Practical Effect of Section 301	247	(1)
Pre-Emption of Misappropriation Claims	247	(2)
Encroaching on the Expanding Subject Matter of Copyright	248	(1)
Encroaching on Congress's View of the Public Domain	248	(1)
Pre-Emption of Publicity Claims	249	(1)
Baltimore Orioles Case	249	(1)
Majority View Rejects Pre-emption	249	(1)
Pre-Emption Analysis Before the 1976 Statute	250	(1)
1964 to 1972	250	(1)
The Goldstein Opinion	250	(1)
Review Questions	250	(6)
V. PATENTS:
Types of Patents	256	(1)
Utility Patents	256	(1)
Design Patents	257	(1)
Plant Patents	257	(1)
Patent-Eligible Subject Matter	257	(8)
Machines	258	(1)
Compositions of Matter	258	(1)
Manufactures	258	(1)
Processes	258	(1)
Recent Expansions in Patent-Eligible Subject Matter	258	(4)
Computer Programs	258	(1)
Initial Skepticism	259	(1)
The Diehr Case	259	(1)
Further Relaxation of Tests for Software Inventions	259	(1)
Business Methods	260	(1)
Traditionally Held Unpatentable	260	(1)
The State Street Bank Case	260	(1)
Business Methods Need Not Be Technological	260	(1)
Genetically--Engineered Living Organisms	261	(1)
The Chakrabarty Case	261	(1)
Examples and Outer Limits	261	(1)
Method of Medical Treatment	262	(1)
Historical Background	262	(1)
Patentable, but No Remedies	262	(1)
Material that is not Patent--Eligible	262	(3)
Laws of Nature and Natural Phenomena	263	(1)
Products of Nature	263	(1)
New Uses of Old Products	264	(1)
Printed Material	264	(1)
Atomic Weaponry	264	(1)
The Requirement of Novelty	265	(8)
Note on Terminology	265	(1)
Prior Patent, Publication, Use or Knowledge by Another---§ 102(a)	266	(4)
The Applicant's Date of Invention	266	(1)
Single Source with an Enabling Disclosure	267	(1)
Prior Patents or Printed Publications	268	(1)
Prior Domestic Use or Knowledge	268	(1)
Only Domestic Use Relevant	269	(1)
Prior Use Must Have Been ``Public''	269	(1)
Unappreciated Results Not Prior Art	270	(1)
Prior Invention by Another---§ 102(g)	270	(2)
Prior Invention by Another As Prior Art	271	(1)
Priority Contests Between Competing Patent Applicants	272	(1)
Unclaimed Disclosures in U.S. Patents and Applications---§ 102(e)	272	(1)
Derivation From Another---§ 102(f)	273	(1)
Statutory Bar	273	(8)
Critical Date and Grace Period	274	(1)
Patent or Printed Publication Before Critical Date---§ 102(b)	274	(1)
Definition of Printed Publication	274	(1)
Applicant's own Publications Can Trigger Bar	275	(1)
Public Use or On-Sale Before Critical Date---§ 102(b)	275	(4)
Applicant's Own Use Can Trigger Bar	276	(1)
The Concept of Public Use	276	(1)
Secret Use By the Patent Applicant is Public Use	276	(1)
Experimental Use By the Patent Applicant is Not Public Use	277	(1)
Secret Use By Third Parties is Not Public Use	278	(1)
The Concept of ``On Sale''	278	(1)
Delayed U.S. Filing---§ 102(d)	279	(1)
Abandonment---§ 102(c)	280	(1)
Differences Between Statutory Bar and Lack of Novelty	280	(1)
The Requirement of Non--Obviousness	281	(5)
Difference Between Non--Obviousness and Novelty	281	(1)
History of Non--Obviousness Requirement	281	(1)
The Flash of Genius Requirement	282	(1)
Section 103	282	(1)
The Graham Case	282	(1)
Prior Art for Obviousness	282	(2)
Sources of the Prior Art	282	(1)
Topical Scope of Prior Art: Analogous Prior Art	283	(1)
References May Be Combined	283	(1)
Tests for Determining ``Obviousness''	284	(2)
Obvious to Try	284	(1)
Combinations of Known Elements	285	(1)
Secondary Considerations	285	(1)
Long Felt Need	285	(1)
Commercial Success	285	(1)
Professional Approval	285	(1)
Widespread Licensing	286	(1)
Prior Failure of Others	286	(1)
Unexpected Results	286	(1)
The Requirement of Utility	286	(1)
Inventions With No Known Purpose	286	(1)
Inoperative Inventions	287	(1)
Immoral or Illegal Inventions	287	(1)
The Patent Instrument and the Patenting Process	287	(7)
Drafting the Patent	287	(5)
Specification	287	(1)
Enabling Disclosure	288	(1)
Written Description Requirement	288	(1)
Best Mode	289	(1)
Claims	289	(1)
Preamble	289	(1)
Transition	290	(1)
Special Claim Formats	290	(1)
Dependent Claims	291	(1)
Means Plus Function Claims	291	(1)
Product By Process Claims	291	(1)
Jepsom Claims	292	(1)
Markush Claims	292	(1)
Patent Examination	292	(2)
Procedure	292	(1)
Inequitable Conduct and the Duty of Candor	293	(1)
Confidentiality and 18 Month Publication	294	(1)
Reissue	294	(1)
Reexamination	294	(1)
Patent Infringement	294	(12)
Duration of Patents	295	(1)
Claim Construction	295	(2)
Markman Hearings	295	(1)
Relevant Sources for Claim Interpretation	296	(1)
Intrinsic Evidence Preferred	296	(1)
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias	297	(1)
Direct Infringement	297	(5)
Making, Using or Selling	297	(1)
Patentee May Not Be Able to Practice Invention	298	(1)
Blocking Patents	298	(1)
Importation of Items Made By Patented Process	298	(1)
Doctrine of Equivalents	298	(1)
General Rule	299	(1)
Scope of Equivalents	299	(1)
All Elements Rule	300	(1)
Prosecution History Estoppel	300	(1)
Burden of Proof	301	(1)
Flexible Bar	301	(1)
Contributory Infringement	302	(1)
Active Inducement	302	(1)
Sale of Non-Staples by Third Parties	302	(1)
Sale of Non-Staples by Patentee	302	(1)
Defenses and Exemptions From Liability	303	(3)
Experimental Use	303	(1)
Repair and Reconstruction	304	(1)
Exhaustion After First Sale	304	(1)
First Inventor Defense	304	(1)
Reverse Doctrine of Equivalents	305	(1)
Governmental Liability	305	(1)
Remedies	306	(1)
Review Questions	306	(6)
VI. TRADE SECRETS
Material Constituting Trade Secrets	312	(3)
Uniform Act Definition	312	(1)
Minimal Novelty and Utility Required	312	(1)
Requisite Degree of Secrecy	313	(1)
Actions Rather Than Intentions Control	313	(1)
Typical Precautions	313	(1)
Matters Held to be Trade Secrets	314	(1)
Appropriation by Parties With Legitimate Access	315	(1)
Explicit Duty to Maintain Secrecy	315	(1)
Parties On Whom Duty Is Typically Imposed	315	(1)
Covenants Not to Compete	315	(1)
Implied Duty to Maintain Secrecy	316	(1)
Trade Secret Theft by Strangers	316	(2)
Behavior Constituting Improper Means	317	(1)
Reverse Engineering is not Improper Means	317	(1)
Innocent Use of Stolen Secrets	318	(1)
Trade Secret Disclosure by Government	318	(2)
Freedom of Information Act	319	(1)
Reverse FOIA Suits	319	(1)
Disclosure During Litigation	319	(1)
Federal Trade Secret Act	319	(1)
Economic Espionage Act	320	(1)
Definition of Trade Secret Under EEA	320	(1)
Substantive Prohibitions	320	(1)
Remedies for Trade Secret Theft	321	(2)
Damages	321	(1)
Injunctions	321	(1)
Subject Matter Still Secret	321	(1)
Subject Matter In Public Domain	321	(1)
Perpetual Injunction	321	(1)
No Injunction	322	(1)
Head Start Injunction	322	(1)
Miscellaneous Criminal Remedies	322	(1)
Pre--Emption Problems	323	(1)
Conflict With the Patent Policy of Free Copiability	323	(1)
Conflict With the Patent Policy of Promoting Disclosure	324	(1)
Trade Secrets and Other IP Concepts	324	(1)
Trade Secret and Patent	324	(1)
Trade Secret and Idea Appropriation	324	(1)
Trade Secret and Copyright	325	(1)
Review Questions	325	(5)
VII. COMPETITOR REMEDIES FOR FALSE ADVERTISING AND DISPARAGEMENT
Common Law Remedies for False Advertising	330	(3)
No Remedy in Usual Case	331	(1)
Sole Source May Recover	331	(1)
Modern Cases	332	(1)
State Statutory Remedies for False Advertising	333	(1)
Statutory Provisions are Widespread	333	(1)
No ``Sole Source'' Limitation	333	(1)
Types of Falsehoods Prohibited	333	(1)
Federal Lanham Act Remedies for False Advertising	334	(5)
Historical Background	334	(2)
Early Cases	334	(1)
1954 to 1989	335	(1)
1989 Amendments	335	(1)
Standing: Who May Invoke Section 43	336	(1)
Standing to Seek Injunctive Relief	336	(1)
Standing to Seek Money Damages or Profits	336	(1)
Substantive Elements of 43(a) Claim	337	(2)
What Constitutes a False Description or Representation	338	(1)
Actual Deception or Tendency to Deceive	338	(1)
Material Falsehood Likely to Influence Purchasing Decisions	338	(1)
Common Law Remedies for Disparagement	339	(3)
Disparagement Defined	339	(1)
Elements of Disparagement	340	(1)
First Amendment Limits on Disparagement Actions	340	(2)
Competitor Disparagement	340	(1)
Consumer or Media Disparagement	341	(1)
State Statutory Remedies for Disparagement	342	(1)
Federal Lanham Act Remedies for Disparagement	342	(3)
Explicit Disparagement	342	(1)
No Remedy Under Original Version of Section 43(a)	342	(1)
Cause of Action Available After 1989	343	(1)
Other Reputational Harms Also Actionable Under § 43(a)	343	(2)
Altering Creative or Artistic Works	343	(1)
Obscene Parody	344	(1)
Review Questions	345	(5)
VIII. FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION REGULATION OF UNFAIR AND DECEPTIVE PRACTICES
Overview of F.T.C. Procedure	350	(2)
Identifying Illegal Behavior	350	(1)
Negotiated Disposition	351	(1)
Formal Adjudication	351	(1)
At the Agency Level	351	(1)
Judicial Review	351	(1)
Litigation in District Courts	351	(1)
Rulemaking	352	(1)
The Meaning of Unfairness	352	(3)
Historical Development	352	(1)
1914 to 1938	352	(1)
The Wheeler-Lea Amendment	352	(1)
1938 to 1964	352	(1)
The Sperry & Hutchinson Case	353	(1)
Current Doctrine	353	(1)
Substantial Injury	353	(1)
Unmitigated Injury	354	(1)
Unavoidable Injury	354	(1)
The Role of Public Policy	354	(1)
Illustrative Unfair Practices	354	(1)
The Meaning of Deception	355	(9)
Original Definition	355	(1)
Protection for the Gullible	355	(1)
Limits on the Definition	356	(1)
The Revised Standard of Deceptiveness	356	(2)
Differences From Traditional Standard	357	(1)
No Consumer Injury or Intent Required	357	(1)
Practical Consequences of Change	358	(1)
Factors Influencing Commission Case Selection	358	(1)
Price and Frequency of Purchase	358	(1)
Deterrence	359	(1)
Risk of Lessening Information	359	(1)
Physical Injury or Foregone Treatment	359	(1)
Applications of the Deception Standard	359	(2)
Omissions	360	(1)
Claims of Uniqueness	360	(1)
Type of Business	360	(1)
Testimonials	361	(1)
Television Advertising	361	(1)
Deceptive Pricing and Sales Practices	361	(2)
Misrepresentation of Price or ``Free'' Products	362	(1)
Misrepresentation of Warranty Terms	362	(1)
Bait and Switch	362	(1)
Door-to-Door Sales	363	(1)
Mail Order Sales	363	(1)
Disparagement	363	(1)
Advertising Substantiation	364	(2)
Development of the Doctrine	364	(1)
The Deception Argument	364	(1)
The Unfairness Argument	364	(1)
What Constitutes Substantiation	365	(1)
General Rule	365	(1)
Specific Reference to Substantiation in Ad	365	(1)
Basis Must Exist Prior to Disseminating Ad	365	(1)
Effect of Substantiation Doctrine on Burden of Proof	365	(1)
Remedies for Violations of Section 5	366	(5)
Cease and Desist Orders	366	(1)
Orders Requiring Affirmative Statements	366	(1)
Corrective Advertising	367	(1)
Conditions Where Appropriate	367	(1)
Duration of Corrective Advertising Requirement	367	(1)
Differences Between Affirmative Disclosure and Corrective Advertising Orders	368	(1)
First Amendment Limits on Commission Orders	368	(1)
Restitution	368	(2)
Restitution Provisions in Cease and Desist Orders	368	(1)
Restitution Sought in Civil Suits	369	(1)
Section 19	369	(1)
Section 13(b)	369	(1)
Remedies for Violations of Cease and Desist Orders	370	(1)
Against Actual Parties to the Order	370	(1)
Against Non-Parties	370	(1)
F.T.C. Rulemaking	371	(1)
The Commission's Authority to Promulgate Rules	371	(1)
Trade Regulation Rules	371	(1)
Rules Authorized by Specific Acts of Congress	371	(1)
Scope and Effect of Commission Rules	371	(1)
Judicial Limits on Rulemaking	372	(1)
Legislative Limits on Rulemaking	372	(1)
The Future of Rulemaking	372	(1)
Review Questions	372	(6)
IX. CONSUMER REMEDIES FOR FALSE ADVERTISING AND OTHER EXPLOITATIVE PRACTICES
Traditional Remedies	378	(1)
Common Law Remedies	378	(1)
Deceit	378	(1)
Strict Tort Liability	379	(1)
Rescission or Restitution	379	(1)
Uniform Commercial Code	379	(1)
Unavailability of General Federal Remedies	379	(2)
No Lanham Act Remedy for Consumers	380	(1)
No F.T.C. Act § 5 Remedy for Consumers	380	(1)
Topical Federal Statutes	381	(1)
Magnuson--Moss Warranty Act	381	(1)
Not All Written Material is a ``Warranty''	381	(1)
Jurisdictional Hurdles	382	(1)
State ``Baby'' F.T.C. Statutes	382	(2)
Proof of Scienter and Reliance not Required	382	(1)
Incentives to File Suit Provided	383	(1)
Damages Need not be Quantifiable	383	(1)
Relief Against Non--Merchant Sellers	384	(1)
Prerequisites to Suits Under Baby F.T.C. Acts	384	(1)
Barriers to Consumer Litigation	384	(2)
Class Action Requirements	384	(1)
Common Issues Must Predominate	385	(1)
Nation--Wide Classes Problematic	385	(1)
Mandatory Arbitration Requirements	385	(1)
Review Questions	386	(79)
APPENDICES
Answers To Review Questions	387	(26)
Model Examination	413	(20)
Glossary	433	(20)
Text Correlation Chart	453	(6)
Table of Cases	459	(6)
Index of Key Terms	465