9789810232863

Silicon, the basic material for a multibillion-dollar industry, is the most widely researched and applied semiconductor, and its surfaces are the most thoroughly studied of all semiconductor surfaces. Silicon Surfaces and Formation of Interfaces may be used as an introduction to graduate-level physics and chemical physics. Moreover, it gives a specialized and comprehensive description of the most common faces of silicon crystals as well as their interaction with adsorbates and overlayers. This knowledge is presented in a systematic and easy-to-follow way. Discussion of each system is preceded by a brief overview which categorizes the features and physical mechanisms before the details are presented. The literature is easily available, and the references am numerous and organized in tables, allowing a search without the need to browse through the text.Though this volume focuses on a scientific understanding of physics on the atomistic and mesoscopic levels, it also highlights existing and potential links between basic research in surface science and applications in the silicon industry. It will be valuable to anyone writing a paper, thesis, or proposal in the field of silicon surfaces.

Preface

vii

Fundamental Concepts and Methods

1

(81)

Introduction

1

(2)

The Silicon Age

3

(11)

The omnipresent silicon

4

(3)

The MOS technology

7

(7)

Methods of Modern Surface Science

14

(31)

Theoretical techniques

15

(13)

Experimental techniques

28

(17)

Silicon Surfaces and Interfaces

45

(22)

Fundamental concepts

46

(7)

Free surfaces

53

(12)

Buried interfaces

65

(2)

Primary Silicon Surfaces and Their Vicinals

67

(15)

Structures of Si(001)

68

(1)

Structures of Si(111)

69

(4)

Si(11n) surfaces

73

(1)

Structures of Si(113)

74

(4)

Structures of Si(110)

78

(4)

The Famous Reconstruction of Si(001)

82

(45)

Introduction

82

(5)

Overview: expectations bias our predictions

84

(3)

Pre-STM Era: Groping through the Dark

87

(20)

Early observations and models

88

(5)

Dimers, chains, vacancies, or maybe something else?

93

(6)

The mysterious fourfold periodicity strikes back

99

(1)

Buckling of dimers

100

(2)

Simple models lose some credit

102

(5)

To Buckle or Not to Buckle?

107

(10)

The first group photo of dimers

107

(2)

Electronic structure attracts more attention

109

(3)

Seeing is believing

112

(3)

The sobering variety of opinions

115

(2)

A Clear Picture Finally Emerges

117

(5)

Reconciliations

117

(3)

Completing the picture

120

(2)

Conclusions and Summary

122

(5)

What did we learn

122

(2)

What is still missing

124

(3)

Geometries of Clean Si(001)

127

(78)

Introduction

127

(3)

Perfect Si(001)

130

(25)

The {001}-truncated bulk

131

(2)

Atomic structures

133

(9)

Electronic structures

142

(13)

Surface Defects

155

(39)

Point defects

155

(16)

Surface steps and vicinal Si(001)

171

(23)

Metastable Structures

194

(11)

Si(001) 2 x n

194

(4)

Si(001) c(4 x 4)

198

(3)

Translational domain boundaries

201

(4)

Evolution of Clean Si(001)

205

(57)

Introduction

205

(1)

Surface Diffusion

206

(31)

Isolated mobile objects on clean Si(001)

207

(9)

Interactions between mobile objects on Si(001)

216

(6)

Interactions between mobile objects and Si(001) steps

222

(15)

Surface Vibrations and Phase Transitions

237

(19)

Surface transitions on the flat Si(001)

238

(11)

Vicinal Si(001): phase transitions, interaction of steps

249

(7)

Deposition and Sublimation of Si

256

(6)

Adsorption on Silicon Surfaces

262

(82)

Introduction

262

(2)

Hydrogen: Passivation and Etching

264

(13)

Hydrogen adsorption, etching, and structures on Si(001)

265

(4)

Desorption of hydrogen and buckling of dimers

269

(6)

Hydrogen and epitaxial growth

275

(2)

Halogens: Etching

277

(9)

Fluorine and hydrofluoric acid

278

(4)

Chlorine, bromine and iodine

282

(4)

Oxygen: Isolation and Protection

286

(10)

Oxygen and its bonds with silicon

288

(1)

Adsorption of O2 on Si(001)

289

(1)

Adsorption sites of atomic oxygen on Si(001)

290

(4)

Active etching and passive oxidation

294

(2)

Water: UHV Pest and a Renowned Oxidant

296

(12)

Water, ice, and hydrogen bonds

298

(3)

Adsorption and dissociation of water

301

(3)

Oxidation and etching by water

304

(4)

Nitrogen: a Hope for a Better Gate Dielectric

308

(14)

Nitrogen, silicon nitride, and related materials

311

(3)

Adsorption of nitrogen-containing molecules

314

(4)

Nitridation of silicon

318

(4)

Transition Metals: Contacts, Dielectrics, Impurities

322

(22)

Transition metal silicides on silicon

324

(11)

Nickel on silicon surfaces

335

(4)

Titanium on Si(001)

339

(2)

Transition metal oxides: new gate dielectrics?

341

(3)

On the Road to Devices: SiO2/Si(001)

344

(101)

Introduction

344

(2)

Silicon Dioxide in Nature and Technology

346

(11)

Silicon dioxide, SiO2

348

(4)

SiO2/Si(001): MOS technology views and limits

352

(5)

Preparation of Oxide Films

357

(23)

Native oxides and oxidation by chemical etch

359

(3)

Thermal oxidation

362

(4)

Growth by deposition

366

(1)

Nitridation and oxynitridation

367

(5)

Silicon dioxide film morphology

372

(3)

Post-oxidation treatments

375

(2)

Isolation techniques

377

(3)

Models of Thermal Oxidation

380

(11)

Deal-Grove model of growth rate

382

(2)

Beyond the Deal-Grove model

384

(7)

Formation and Structures of SiO2/Si Interfaces

391

(38)

Interface formation: a simple analysis

394

(4)

Atomic structures of SiO2/Si(001)

398

(8)

Electronic states in the gap

406

(2)

Oxide defects and growth of the oxide

408

(4)

Reactions at the interface and in the oxide film

412

(17)

Practical Quality Issues of SiO2/Si

429

(16)

Experimental access

429

(1)

Influence on device parameters

430

(15)

Afterword

445

(18)

Do We Need an Afterword?

445

(1)

A Glance Behind

446

(1)

Fundamental Science in a Commercial World

447

(11)

The dangers of commercialization

448

(1)

Can science be saved?

449

(1)

Science for technology

450

(2)

Science for all

452

(6)

How Can Silicon Surfaces Contribute?

458

(2)

Overview and Summary

460

(3)

References

463

(44)

Author Index

507

(26)

Subject Index

533

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Silicon Surfaces and Formation of Interfaces : Basic Science in the Industrial World

9810232861

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