Bridging English

by Milner, Joseph O'Beirne; Milner, Lucy Floyd Morcock

• ISBN13: 9780137929467
• ISBN10: 0137929463
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1998-08-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

The third edition of this popular book again takes a balanced, comprehensive approach to teaching English one that creates a bridge between theory/background and practices that reflect today's diverse, challenging high school classrooms. This book has been praised for its unique components: discussion of " four stages" of reading texts and " three phases" of teaching texts. The authors' many years of experience teaching English are obvious throughout the material, but nowhere more so than in their straightforward presentation of organization and planning for instruction and their firm stand on teaching grammar. This book covers the challenging and the controversial in English instruction and explores censorship, national standards, high-stakes testing, multi-lingual students, and multicultural literature. For professionals in the field of teaching.

Table of Contents

1 ENVISIONING ENGLISH	1	(15)
Initial Definitions	1	(2)
A Brief History	3	(1)
Core Beliefs	4	(10)
The Crazy Quilt of English	6	(1)
Importance of Core Beliefs	6	(1)
Confession	6	(1)
Traditional Principles of Learning	7	(1)
Alternative Beliefs About Learning	7	(5)
Four Perspectives on Language Learning	12	(1)
Beliefs About Literature Learning	12	(2)
Individual Decisions	14	(1)
Conclusion	15	(1)
2 CENTERING ON LANGUAGE	16	(32)
The Story of the English Language	17	(5)
The Uniqueness of English	18	(1)
A Brief History	19	(1)
Language Change and Stability	20	(1)
What Creates Variation	21	(1)
The Study of Language: Linguistics	22	(2)
Historical Linguistics	23	(1)
Descriptive Linguistics	23	(1)
Psychological/Sociological Linguistics	23	(1)
Structural Linguistics	23	(1)
The Instructional Debate	24	(10)
Descriptive or Prescriptive Grammar	24	(2)
The Linguistic Debate: Change Versus Stability	26	(1)
The Political Debate: Cultural Diversity	27	(4)
The Psychological or Biological Debate: Language Acquisition	31	(1)
The Practical Debate: Research and Experience in Grammar Instruction	32	(2)
Language Instruction	34	(6)
Levels of Usage	34	(1)
Strategies of Language Instruction	35	(3)
Basic Qualities in Language Instruction	38	(2)
Broadening Language Consciousness	40	(7)
Doublespeak	40	(1)
Four Language Consciousness Raising Activities	41	(2)
Whitworth's Tested Suggestions	43	(4)
Conclusion	47	(1)
3 DEVELOPING AN ORAL FOUNDATION	48	(32)
Classroom Talking and Listening	49	(3)
Classrooms in the U.S. and Abroad	50	(1)
Fundamental Assumptions	50	(1)
Classroom Environments for Talking and Listening	51	(1)
Oral Language Exercises	52	(7)
Ten Exercises	53	(6)
Creative Drama	59	(9)
The Teacher's Role	60	(1)
The Teacher's Content Goals	60	(1)
The Teacher's Process Goals	60	(2)
Rules of the Game	62	(1)
Resources	62	(1)
Activities	62	(4)
A Process of Response and Critique	66	(1)
Summary	67	(1)
Understanding Drama: Transformation and Appreciation	68	(8)
Ready-made Plays	68	(1)
Student-created Drama	69	(1)
Plot	70	(1)
Character	71	(3)
Theme	74	(1)
Form	75	(1)
Story Drama	75	(1)
Dramatic Approaches to Shakespeare	76	(3)
Performing Versus Reading Shakespeare	76	(1)
Seven Shakespearean Activities	77	(2)
Conclusion	79	(1)
4 RESPONDING TO LITERATURE	80	(51)
Why Read Literature?	80	(3)
The Death of Literature	80	(1)
The Life of Literature	81	(1)
Goals and Methods for Teaching Literature	82	(1)
Four Stages of Reading Literature	83	(2)
Reader Response	83	(1)
Interpretive Community	84	(1)
Formal Analysis	85	(1)
Critical Synthesis	85	(1)
Instructional Strategies/Teaching Activities	85	(1)
Reader Response	85	(14)
Personal Triggers	86	(1)
Suppositional Readers	87	(1)
Conceptual Readiness	88	(1)
Synergistic Texts	88	(1)
Personal Retrieval	89	(1)
Associative Recollections	90	(1)
Evoked Response	90	(1)
Dependent Authors	91	(1)
Imagine This	92	(1)
Polar Appraisals	92	(1)
Character Continuum	93	(1)
Character Map	93	(1)
Focal Judgments	94	(1)
Polar Response	95	(1)
Verbal Scales	96	(1)
Interrogative Reading	96	(1)
Jump Starts	97	(1)
Title Testing	97	(2)
Interpretive Community	99	(7)
At the Point of Utterance	100	(1)
Proximate Reading	100	(1)
Communal Judgments	101	(1)
Defining Vignetters	101	(1)
Readers' Theater	102	(1)
Assaying Characters	102	(2)
Psychological Profiles	104	(1)
Venn Diagramming	105	(1)
Formal Analysis	106	(11)
Teachable Moments	108	(1)
Unpacking Conventions	108	(1)
Formal Discussion Questions	109	(1)
Rules of Notice	109	(2)
The Questioning Circle	111	(1)
Imaging Conventions	112	(1)
Intertextuality	113	(2)
Contemporary Contrasts	113	(2)
Character Questions	115	(1)
Students Write	115	(1)
Authors Speak	116	(1)
Critical Synthesis	117	(11)
Early Critics and 11 Critical Approaches to Literature	118	(8)
Classroom Strategies	126	(2)
A Plea for Pluralism	128	(1)
The Reading Cycle: Enter, Explore, Extend	128	(2)
Enter	129	(1)
Explore	129	(1)
Extend	129	(1)
Choosing Strategies	129	(1)
Conclusion	130	(1)
5 REVIVING POETRY	131	(41)
Finding Poetry	133	(9)
Nonliterary Prose	133	(3)
Music	136	(2)
Advertising	138	(2)
Bumper Stickers	140	(1)
Unexpected Places	140	(2)
Forging Poetry	142	(13)
Templates	143	(3)
Fixed Forms	146	(6)
Open Forms	152	(2)
Wild Cards	154	(1)
Reading Poetry	155	(9)
Definition	155	(1)
Choice	156	(1)
Personal Response	156	(2)
Enactment	158	(2)
Visualization	160	(3)
Synthesis	163	(1)
Talking Poetry	164	(7)
Adolescent Readers	164	(2)
Choosing Poems	166	(1)
Listening to Poems	166	(1)
Discussing Poems	167	(1)
Poetry and Prose	168	(2)
Poets Talk	170	(1)
Conclusion	171	(1)
6 EXPANDING LITERACY	172	(45)
The Classics	172	(4)
Historical Roots of the High School Canon	172	(1)
Texts in the High School Canon	173	(3)
The Canon Wars	176	(2)
Cultural Literacy	176	(1)
Teaching the Tradition	177	(1)
Renewing the Canon	178	(1)
Three Challenges to the Canon	178	(4)
Deconstructionist Challenge	178	(1)
Reader Response Challenge	179	(1)
Critical Literacy Challenge	180	(2)
Fourth Challenge: Multicultural Literature	182	(8)
Women	182	(1)
African Americans	183	(2)
Native Americans	185	(2)
Hispanic Americans	187	(1)
Asian Americans	187	(1)
Canadians	188	(1)
South and Central Americans	189	(1)
Non-Europeans	189	(1)
Multicultural Literature in the Classroom	190	(7)
Classroom Environment	191	(1)
Literature Selections	191	(1)
Alternative Organization	191	(1)
Pairing	192	(1)
Resistant Reading	193	(1)
Student Assays	193	(1)
Perspective Taking	194	(1)
Enactment	195	(1)
Tackling Stereotypes	196	(1)
Fifth Challenge: Young Adult Fiction	197	(4)
The Expansion of Young Adult Fiction	197	(1)
Content	198	(1)
Form	199	(1)
Appeal	199	(1)
Young Adult Fiction and the Classics	200	(1)
Sixth Challenge: Genre Variety	201	(2)
Science Fiction	201	(2)
Censorship	203	(2)
Community Standards	203	(1)
School Policies	204	(1)
Allies	204	(1)
Expanding the Teaching of Literature	205	(8)
Response Chart	205	(1)
Character Circle	205	(1)
Story Quilt	206	(1)
Mobile	206	(1)
Guided Imagery	206	(1)
Song Search	206	(1)
Impromptu Drama	207	(2)
Classroom Drama	209	(1)
Imitations of Life	210	(1)
Response Journals	210	(3)
Literature Circles	213	(2)
A Reader's Bill of Rights	215	(1)
Conclusion	215	(2)
7 ASSAYING NONFICTION	217	(19)
Why Teach Nonfiction?	218	(2)
Nonfiction Genres in the Classroom	220	(15)
Essays	220	(2)
Biographies	222	(2)
Autobiographies and Memoirs	224	(3)
Testimonials	227	(1)
Diaries and Journals	228	(1)
Letters	229	(3)
Miscellaneous Nonfiction Books	232	(2)
Newspapers	234	(1)
Nonfiction in the Fiction Classroom	235	(1)
Conclusion	235	(1)
8 MAKING MEDIA MATTER	236	(27)
Mimic: Students as Producers	238	(5)
Juxtaworlds	240	(1)
Madison Avenue	240	(1)
Rock Review	240	(1)
Piggyback Pop	241	(1)
Jacketeering	241	(1)
Rock Market	241	(1)
Anchor People	241	(1)
Crisis Interview	241	(1)
Pilot Making	242	(1)
Class Magazine	242	(1)
Classy Comics	242	(1)
Bumper Stickers	243	(1)
Entertain: Students as Listeners and Viewers	243	(8)
Studying Literature: Film	245	(1)
Studying Literature: Music	246	(2)
Studying Literature: Paintings, Prints, and Photographs	248	(1)
Studying Literature: Comics	248	(1)
Developing Film Literacy	249	(2)
Locating Materials	251	(1)
Examine: Students as Anthropologists and Literary Critics	251	(8)
Examining the News	254	(1)
Examining Advertising	255	(2)
Scrubbing the Soaps	257	(1)
Examining Media as Artifact and Art: Magazine Analysis	258	(1)
Examining Media as Artifact and Art: Student Public Service Announcements	258	(1)
Examining Media as Artifact and Art: Viewing Styles	258	(1)
Expose: Students as Social Critics	259	(3)
Corrupts Cultural Morality	260	(1)
Falsifies Expectations of Life	260	(1)
Reinforces Passivity	260	(1)
Undermines Critical Reasoning Capacity	261	(1)
Promotes Consumerism	261	(1)
Conclusion	262	(1)
9 COMPELLING WRITING	263	(32)
Developmental Tasks	265	(7)
How Language Functions: Purpose and Audience	265	(1)
Writing Stages	266	(1)
Developmental Sequence	267	(5)
Process Model	272	(6)
Basic Assumptions	272	(2)
Further Definition	274	(1)
The Teacher's Role	275	(3)
Writing Workshops	278	(4)
Antecedents	278	(1)
Writing Workshop Principles	278	(1)
Four Components	279	(2)
Physical Arrangement and Workshop Procedures	281	(1)
Portfolio Work	282	(5)
Variety of Contents	283	(1)
Works in Progress	284	(1)
Student Responsibility	285	(1)
Accomplishments	286	(1)
Authentic Assessment	287	(7)
State-initiated Performance-based Assessment	288	(3)
Tied to Daily Instruction	291	(1)
Constructing Rubrics	291	(1)
NAEP Framework	292	(2)
Conclusion	294	(1)
10 ENABLING WRITING	295	(48)
Four Basic Needs	295	(2)
Substance	295	(1)
Skills	295	(1)
Structure	296	(1)
Style	296	(1)
Collaborative Writing	297	(2)
Cognitive Conflict	298	(1)
Verbalization	298	(1)
Benefits of Collaboration	298	(1)
Experimental Journalism	299	(3)
Foxfire's Lessons	299	(1)
Interviewing	300	(2)
Right Writing	302	(3)
Rico Clusters	302	(1)
Other Paths	302	(2)
Left-Right Continuum	304	(1)
Journal Writing	305	(2)
Freedom	306	(1)
Confidentiality	306	(1)
Respect	306	(1)
Writing to Learn	307	(3)
Math and Science	307	(3)
Difficult Problems	310	(1)
Code Switching	310	(3)
Program Requirements	311	(1)
Switching Principles	312	(1)
Program Outline	312	(1)
Pedagogical Grammar	313	(4)
Contextualized Grammar	313	(1)
Comprehensive Grammar	314	(3)
Vocabuspell	317	(4)
Vocabulary Growth	317	(2)
Spelling Power	319	(2)
Mediated Instruction	321	(2)
Middle Ground	321	(1)
Hillocks' Lesson	322	(1)
Another Rigorous Way	323	(1)
New Research	323	(2)
Controlled Sources Research	323	(1)
Contextual Analysis	324	(1)
Historical Synthesis	324	(1)
Contemporary Issues Research	324	(1)
Scholarly Research	324	(1)
Fabulous Analysis	324	(1)
Elemental Variation	325	(3)
Topology Procedures	326	(1)
Evaluation	326	(2)
Lit. Write	328	(2)
Opening a Text	328	(2)
Sentence Combining	330	(3)
Strong Kernels	331	(1)
Other Sources	332	(1)
Dependent Authors	333	(2)
Roles Around	333	(1)
Other Dependencies	333	(2)
Apprentice Writing	335	(4)
Copying (Duplicating Exact Texts)	335	(1)
Paraphrasing (Translating Passages)	336	(1)
Molding (Employing a Template)	337	(1)
Imitating (Mimicking the Masters)	338	(1)
Practical Stylist	339	(1)
Three Style Books	339	(1)
Others	340	(1)
Conclusion	340	(3)
11 ORGANIZING INSTRUCTION	343	(45)
Four Approaches to Instruction	343	(3)
Lecture	346	(4)
Four Types of Lecture	346	(1)
Four Rhetorical Styles	347	(1)
Lecture's Critics	348	(1)
Lecture's Best Exemplars	348	(2)
Whole-class Discussion	350	(7)
Classroom Discussion Defined	350	(1)
Whole-class Discussion Practiced	351	(2)
Alternatives Attempted	352	(2)
Questions Raised	354	(2)
Midrash	356	(1)
Group Work	357	(6)
Collaborative Learning	357	(1)
A Teacher Adopts Collaborative Learning	357	(1)
Practical Steps Toward Collaborative Learning	358	(1)
Common Groups Designs	359	(1)
Five Group Features	360	(1)
Forming, Storming, Norming, and Performing	361	(2)
Individual Work	363	(2)
Independent Study	364	(1)
Workshop/Conference	364	(1)
Individualized Instruction	364	(1)
Layering the Four Approaches	365	(1)
Inquiry Learning and Learning Centers	366	(4)
Inquiry Learning	366	(3)
Learning Centers or Stations	369	(1)
Computers and English	370	(8)
Cutting Edge	371	(1)
Computers as Tutors: Computer-assisted Instruction	371	(2)
Computers as Tools: Computer-managed Instruction	373	(3)
Wise Applications	376	(1)
Seismic Qualms	376	(1)
Overriding Hopes	377	(1)
Guidelines for Good Use	377	(1)
Planning Instruction	378	(1)
Unit Planning	379	(6)
Focused or Integrated Units	379	(1)
Content-based Model	379	(2)
Objectives-based Model	381	(1)
Process-based Model	382	(1)
Conversation-based Model	383	(1)
Grounding Unit Planning in Students	384	(1)
Weekly Planning	385	(1)
Daily Planning	385	(1)
Curriculum Planning	386	(1)
Conclusion	387	(1)
12 PLANNING THE LESSON	388	(19)
Lesson Planning	388	(14)
Behavioral Goals and Objectives	389	(2)
Hierarchical Schemata	391	(1)
Creative-Process Design	391	(5)
Constant Classroom Structures and Concerns	396	(4)
Creative Planning with the Text	400	(2)
Unit Planning	402	(3)
Topic Selection and Quality Control	402	(1)
Steps of Unit Development	403	(2)
Conclusion	405	(2)
13 EVALUATING LEARNING	407	(49)
Grading and Evaluation	408	(6)
Definition of Terms	409	(1)
Purposes of Evaluation	410	(1)
Learning Possibilities to Be Measured	411	(3)
Alternative Methods of Evaluation	414	(8)
Self-evaluation	415	(2)
Portfolios	417	(3)
Contracts	420	(1)
Observation	420	(2)
Alternative Grading Choices	422	(5)
Polarities Within Evaluation	423	(4)
Evaluating Knowledge and Response to Literature	427	(12)
Selected-response (Objective)	429	(3)
Constructed-response (Subjective)	432	(7)
Evaluating Writing	439	(12)
Outside the Classroom	439	(1)
Inside the Classroom	439	(12)
Evaluating Oracy	451	(2)
Standardized Achievement Tests	452	(1)
Critique of Traditional Grading	453	(2)
Pedagogical Dangers	453	(1)
Psychometric Dangers	453	(1)
Personal Dangers	453	(2)
Cultural Dangers	455
Unique Difficulties for English Teachers	454
Conclusion	455	(1)
14 BECOMING A COMPLETE TEACHER	456	(20)
Defining Yourself as a Teacher	456	(4)
Apprasing Yourself	456	(4)
Defining Yourself in a Professional Context	460	(3)
School Critics	461	(1)
Defining Yourself for Schools	462	(1)
Building Public Trust	463	(3)
Include	463	(1)
Inform	463	(1)
Involve	464	(2)
Promoting Professional Growth	466	(7)
Goal Setting	466	(1)
Self-evaluation	467	(1)
Peer Review	468	(1)
External Assessment	469	(1)
General-knowledge Tests	470	(1)
Classroom Performance	470	(2)
Action Research	472	(1)
Guild Building	473	(1)
Association Linkage	473	(1)
Professional Leadership	473	(1)
Conclusion	474	(2)
APPENDIX A	476	(2)
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development	476	(1)
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development	477	(1)
Loevinger's Stages of Ego Development	477	(1)
APPENDIX B	478	(5)
Becky Brown's Favorite Poems for Student Responses	478	(2)
Brown's Poetry Response Assignment, 1991-1992	480	(1)
Brown's Explanation of Her Poetry Assignment's Evolution	481	(1)
Brown's Poetry Response Assignment, 1997-1998	481	(1)
Books on Poetry and Poetry Teaching	482	(1)
APPENDIX C	483	(15)
Works Listed on AP English Literature Exams: 1981-1997	483	(3)
Reader Response Resources	486	(1)
Fiction by Women	487	(1)
African American Writers	488	(2)
Native American Writers	490	(1)
Hispanic Writers	490	(1)
Asian American Writers	491	(1)
Benedict's Recommendations: Young Adult Fiction	491	(3)
Hipples's Recommendations: Young Adult Novels Worth Your Attention	494	(1)
Chester's Recommendations: Science Fiction	495	(1)
Benedict's Recommendations: Modern Interpretations and Retellings	496	(1)
Alexander's Recommendations: Journals, Articles, and Lists of Young Adult Fiction	496	(1)
Works on Censorship	497	(1)
APPENDIX D	498	(4)
Media Sources	498	(1)
Distributors of Videotapes, Films, and Recorded Books	498	(1)
Video Series	499	(1)
Teasley and Wilder's 100 Great Films for Adolescents: Annotated Filmography	499	(3)
APPENDIX E Recommended Writing Textbooks	502	(1)
APPENDIX F	503	(6)
Meiers' Independent Project for English: Collecting and Writing a Personal Anthology	503	(1)
Ten Textual Learning Stations: Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn	504	(3)
Five Topical Learning Stations: Utopia	507	(1)
Davis' Learning Centers: Family	508	(1)
APPENDIX G Developing a Unit: William Shakespeare	509	(3)
APPENDIX H	512	(6)
SAT Essay Exam Assessment: Diederich Scale	512	(1)
Oral Communications Activities Log	513	(1)
Two Communication Inventories	514	(1)
Evaluation Form for Group Discussion	515	(1)
Explanation of Ratings Used for the Evaluation Form for Group Discussion	515	(2)
Teacher's Evaluation of Announcements	517	(1)
APPENDIX I	518	(3)
NCTE Organizations and Periodicals for the English Teacher	518	(1)
Educational Periodicals Recommended for English Teachers	519	(2)
REFERENCES	521	(18)
INDEX	539