Bulk Crystal Growth of Electronic, Optical and Optoelectronic Materials

by Capper, Peter

• ISBN13: 9780470851425
• ISBN10: 0470851422
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-04-01
• Publisher: WILEY

Summary

A valuable, timely book for the crystal growth community, edited by one of the most respected members in the field. Contents cover all the important materials from silicon through the III-V and II-IV compounds to oxides, nitrides, fluorides, carbides and diamonds International group of contributors from academia and industry provide a balanced treatment Includes global interest with particular relevance to: USA, Canada, UK, France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China, Australia and South Africa

Author Biography

Dr Peter Capper, Materials Team Leader, BAE Systems Infrared Ltd, Southampton, UK.

Table of Contents

Series Preface	xv
Preface	xvii
Acknowledgements	xxi
List of Contributors	xxiii
Abbreviations	xxvii
Silicon	1	(42)
Taketoshi Hibiya
Keigo Hoshikawa
Introduction	1	(2)
Crystal-growth method and technology	3	(15)
High-purity polycrystalline silicon	3	(3)
CZ-Si growth apparatus and related furnace parts	6	(5)
CZ-Si crystal growth	11	(2)
FZ (float-zone) Si crystal growth	13	(3)
Wafer processing	16	(2)
Melt process	18	(12)
Analysis of heat- and mass-transfer processes	18	(6)
Oxygen transportation process and mechanism	24	(3)
Control of oxygen concentration by application of cusp magnetic field	27	(3)
Defect and wafer quality	30	(9)
Oxygen precipitation and gettering	30	(3)
Grown-in defects	33	(6)
Concluding remarks	39	(4)
References	40	(3)
Growth of Gallium Arsenide	43	(30)
M.R. Brozel
I.R. Grant
Introduction	43	(2)
Doping considerations	45	(3)
Growth techniques	48	(6)
Horizontal Bridgman and horizontal gradient freeze techniques	48	(1)
Liquid encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) technique	49	(4)
Vertical gradient freeze (VGF) technique	53	(1)
Crystalline defects in GaAs	54	(5)
Defects in melt-grown, semi-insulating GaAs	54	(5)
Impurity and defect analysis of GaAs (chemical)	59	(2)
Impurity and defect analysis of GaAs (electrical)	61	(4)
Introduction to the electrical analysis of defects in GaAs	61	(4)
Impurity and defect analysis of GaAs (optical)	65	(2)
Optical analysis of defects in GaAs	65	(2)
Conclusions	67	(6)
Acknowledgments	68	(1)
References	69	(4)
Computer Modelling of Bulk Crystal Growth	73	(48)
Andrew Yeckel
Jeffrey J. Derby
Introduction	74	(1)
Present state of bulk crystal growth modelling	75	(2)
Bulk crystal growth processes	77	(2)
Transport modelling in bulk crystal growth	79	(10)
Governing equations	79	(4)
Boundary conditions	83	(1)
Continuum interface representation	84	(2)
Radiation heat-transfer modelling	86	(2)
Noninertial reference frames	88	(1)
Magnetic fields	88	(1)
Turbulence	89	(1)
Computer-aided analysis	89	(9)
Discretization	89	(1)
Numerical interface representation	90	(2)
Deforming grids and ALE methods	92	(2)
A simple fixed-grid method	94	(2)
Quasi-steady-state models	96	(2)
Modelling examples	98	(14)
Float-zone refinement of silicon sheets	98	(4)
Bridgman growth of CZT: axisymmetric analysis	102	(2)
Bridgman growth of CZT: three-dimensional analysis	104	(2)
Morphological stability in solution growth of KTP	106	(6)
Summary and outlook	112	(9)
Acknowledgments	113	(1)
References	113	(8)
Indium Phosphide Crystal Growth	121	(28)
Ian R. Grant
Introduction	121	(1)
Material properties	122	(1)
Hazards	123	(1)
Crystal structure	124	(1)
Synthesis	125	(4)
Single-crystal growth	129	(3)
Defects	132	(3)
Twins	132	(1)
Dislocations	133	(2)
Dislocation reduction	135	(1)
VGF growth	136	(3)
Crystal-growth modelling	139	(2)
Dopants	141	(4)
N-type InP	141	(1)
P-type InP	142	(1)
Semi-insulating InP	142	(3)
Conclusion	145	(4)
Acknowledgements	145	(1)
References	145	(4)
Bulk Growth of InSb and Related Ternary Alloys	149	(24)
W.F.H. Micklethwaite
Introduction---a little history	149	(1)
Why the interest?	150	(1)
Key properties	151	(4)
Crystallography	151	(3)
Growth-critical material parameters	154	(1)
Common growth conditions	154	(1)
Impurities and dopants	154	(1)
Czochralski growth	155	(9)
Challenges	156	(6)
Choice and implications of growth axis	162	(1)
Size evolution and its drivers	163	(1)
Bridgman and VGF growth	164	(1)
Other bulk growth methods	165	(1)
InSb-related pseudobinary (ternary) alloys	165	(4)
(Ga, In)Sb	166	(2)
(In, T1)Sb	168	(1)
In(As, Sb)	168	(1)
In(Bi, Sb)	168	(1)
Conclusion	169	(4)
References	169	(4)
GaN Bulk Substrates Grown under Pressure from Solution in Gallium	173	(36)
I. Grzegory
M. Bockowski
S. Porowski
Introduction	173	(2)
Phase diagrams and growth method	175	(8)
Thermodynamic properties of GaN-Ga-N2 system	175	(3)
The role of high pressure	178	(1)
Crystallization of GaN from solution	179	(3)
Experimental	182	(1)
Results of spontaneous crystallization in temperature gradient: crystals and physical properties of the crystals	183	(5)
Morphology	183	(2)
Physical properties of the pressure-grown GaN crystals	185	(3)
Discussion of crystallization in a temperature gradient	188	(4)
Crystallization on the free gallium surface	192	(2)
Directional crystallization on GaN and foreign substrates	194	(7)
Seeded growth of GaN from solutions in gallium on GaN substrates	195	(2)
Seeded growth of GaN from solutions in gallium on GaN/sapphire substrates	197	(4)
Applications of pressure-grown bulk GaN substrates	201	(2)
Summary and conclusions	203	(6)
References	205	(4)
Bulk Growth of Cadmium Mercury Telluride (CMT)	209	(32)
P. Capper
Introduction	209	(1)
Phase equilibria	210	(1)
Crystal growth	211	(27)
SSR	212	(5)
THM	217	(5)
Bridgman	222	(16)
Conclusions	238	(3)
References	238	(3)
Bulk Growth of CdZnTe/CdTe Crystals	241	(28)
R. Hirano
H. Kurita
Introduction	241	(1)
High-purity Cd and Te	242	(1)
Cadmium	242	(1)
Tellurium	243	(1)
Crystal growth	243	(17)
Polycrystal growth	243	(1)
VGF single-crystal growth	244	(16)
Wafer processing	260	(6)
Process flow	261	(3)
Characteristics	264	(2)
Summary	266	(3)
Acknowledgements	266	(1)
References	266	(3)
Bulk Crystal Growth of Wide-Bandgap II-VI Materials	269	(30)
M. Isshiki
J.F. Wang
Introduction	269	(1)
Physical and chemical properties	270	(1)
Phase diagrams	270	(1)
Crystal-growth methods	270	(10)
Growth from vapor phase	272	(4)
Growth from liquid phase	276	(4)
Crystal growth from solid phase	280	(1)
Crystal growth of wide-bandgap compounds	280	(14)
ZnS	280	(2)
ZnO	282	(2)
ZnSe	284	(7)
ZnTe	291	(3)
Conclusions	294	(5)
References	294	(5)
Sapphire Crystal Growth and Applications	299	(40)
V.A. Tatartchenko
Introduction	300	(1)
Sapphire structure	301	(1)
Sapphire crystal growth	302	(17)
Verneuil's technique (VT)	302	(6)
Floating-zone technique (FZT)	308	(2)
Czochralski technique (CzT)	310	(2)
Kyropulos technique (KT)	312	(1)
Horizontal Bridgman technique (HBT)	313	(1)
Heat-exchange method (HEM)	313	(1)
Techniques of pulling from shaper (TPS)	314	(4)
Flux technique (FT)	318	(1)
Hydrothermal technique (HTT)	319	(1)
Gas-phase technique (GPT)	319	(1)
Corundum crystal defects	319	(8)
Inclusions	319	(4)
Dislocations, low-angle grain boundaries, internal stresses	323	(3)
Twins	326	(1)
Faceting, inhomogeneities of impurity	326	(1)
Growth direction	327	(1)
Applications	327	(2)
Special windows	327	(1)
Domes	328	(1)
Substrates	329	(1)
Construction material	329	(1)
Brief crystal-growth technique characterization	329	(2)
VT	329	(1)
FZT	330	(1)
CzT	330	(1)
KT	330	(1)
HBT	330	(1)
HEM	330	(1)
TPS	330	(1)
FT, HTT, GPT	331	(1)
Conclusion	331	(8)
References	331	(3)
Appendix: sapphire physical properties	334	(5)
Crystal Growth of Fluorides	339	(18)
P.P. Fedorov
V.V. Osiko
Introduction	339	(1)
Polymorphism and crystal growth	340	(2)
Solid solutions: decomposition and ordering	342	(5)
Type of compound melting: congruent/incongruent	347	(1)
Phases that are not in equilibrium with melt	347	(1)
Dopant segregation coefficients	348	(1)
Morphological stability	348	(2)
Hydrolysis and melt fluoride growth	350	(7)
Acknowledgments	352	(1)
References	352	(5)
Scintillators: Crystal Growth and Scintillator Performance	357	(30)
A. Gektin
Introduction	357	(1)
Scintillator applications	358	(3)
High-energy physics	359	(2)
Medical imaging	361	(1)
Scintillation-material efficiency estimation	361	(3)
Halide scintillator growth	364	(10)
Activator distribution in scintillation single crystals	374	(2)
Oxide scintillation crystal growth	376	(2)
Influence of single-crystal perfection on scintillation characteristics	378	(3)
New scintillation crystals	381	(1)
Conclusion	382	(5)
List of definitions and abbreviations	383	(1)
References	383	(4)
Growth of Quartz Crystals	387	(20)
K. Byrappa
Introduction	387	(1)
History of quartz crystal growth	388	(3)
Physical chemistry of the growth of quartz	391	(1)
Solubility	392	(4)
Apparatus	396	(1)
Crystal growth	396	(2)
Growth of high-quality (and dislocation-free) quartz crystals	398	(3)
Growth rate	399	(1)
Seed effect	400	(1)
Nutrient effect	400	(1)
Defects observed in synthetic α-quartz single crystals	401	(1)
Processing of α-quartz for high-frequency devices	402	(2)
Conclusions	404	(3)
References	404	(3)
Crystal Growth of Diamond	407	(26)
Hisao Kanda
Introduction	407	(1)
Diamond synthesis	408	(9)
Phase diagram of carbon	408	(1)
Direct transformation	408	(1)
Agents for diamond formation	409	(2)
Carbon source	411	(1)
High-pressure apparatus	412	(1)
Diamond growth methods	412	(5)
Properties of diamond single crystals made with high-pressure methods	417	(11)
Morphology	417	(2)
Surface morphology	419	(2)
Inclusions	421	(1)
Atomic impurities, color and luminescence	422	(1)
Color control	423	(5)
Summary	428	(5)
References	428	(5)
Growth of Silicon Carbide	433	(18)
T.S. Sudarshan
D. Cherednichenko
R. Yakimova
Introduction	433	(1)
Historical development	434	(1)
Industrial production of SiC wafers	435	(2)
Growth along the conventional c- or [0001] direction	435	(1)
Bulk SiC growth along alternate orientations	436	(1)
Bulk growth of semi-insulating SiC	436	(1)
Bulk-crystal doping	437	(1)
Essentials of the bulk growth process and thermal-stress-generation mechanisms	437	(7)
Basics of the bulk growth process	437	(6)
Thermal-stress-generation mechanisms	443	(1)
Growth-related defects	444	(3)
Outlook	447	(4)
Acknowledgements	447	(1)
References	447	(4)
Photovoltaic Silicon Crystal Growth	451	(26)
T.F. Ciszek
Introduction	451	(1)
Traditional silicon growth methods applied to PV	452	(7)
Czochralski growth	452	(3)
FZ growth	455	(1)
Comparisons between CZ and FZ growth for PV	456	(3)
Multicrystalline ingot growth methods for PV	459	(4)
Casting and directional solidification	459	(2)
Semicontinuous electromagnetic casting	461	(2)
Ribbon or sheet growth methods for PV	463	(9)
Small-area solid/liquid interface growth methods	463	(5)
Large-area solid/liquid interface growth methods	468	(4)
Thin-layer growth on substrates for PV	472	(1)
Comparison of growth methods	473	(4)
References	475	(2)
Bulk Crystal Growth Under Microgravity Conditions	477	(48)
Thierry Duffar
Introduction	477	(25)
Experimental and technological environment	502	(3)
Technical limitations: time, size, power and space management	502	(2)
Environmental limitations: the gravity level	504	(1)
Scientific achievements	505	(11)
Segregation studies in Bridgman configuration	505	(3)
Experiments of crystal growth from a molten zone or molten drop	508	(2)
Sample--crucible interactions and structural aspects	510	(4)
Growth from solutions	514	(1)
Growth from the vapor phase	515	(1)
Conclusion and future directions	516	(9)
Summary of major breakthroughs	516	(1)
Problems still to be investigated and perspectives	517	(1)
References	517	(8)
Index	525