Care And Repair Of Advanced Composites

by Armstrong, Keith B.; Bevan, L. Graham; Cole, William F., II

• ISBN13: 9780768010626
• ISBN10: 0768010624
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-06-30
• Publisher: Society of Automotive Engineers

Table of Contents

Foreword	xxiii
Preface to the Second Edition	xxv
Preface to the First Edition	xxvii
Introduction to Composites and Care of Composite Parts	1	(16)
Definition of Composites	1	(1)
History of Composite Materials	2	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Composites	2	(3)
Advantages of Composites	2	(1)
Disadvantages of Composites	3	(1)
Advantages of Thermoset Resin Composites	3	(1)
Disadvantages of Thermoset Resin Composites	4	(1)
Advantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites	4	(1)
Disadvantages of Thermoplastic Resin Composites	5	(1)
Applications of Composites to Modern Aircraft, Yachts, Cars, and Trains	5	(2)
Early Aircraft Structures	5	(1)
Modern Aircraft Structures and Other Applications	6	(1)
Care of Composite Parts	7	(9)
Sources of Damage to Composite Parts	10	(1)
Physical or Chemical Damage	10	(2)
Deterioration in Normal Service	12	(1)
Avoidance of Damage and Reduction of Deterioration in Service	13	(3)
References	16	(1)
Materials	17	(90)
Fiber Reinforcement	17	(20)
Comparison of Some High-Performance Fibers and Common Metals	17	(2)
Glass Fiber	19	(3)
Glass Manufacture	22	(1)
Glass Fiber Manufacture	23	(2)
Carbon Fibers	25	(1)
Carbon Fiber Manufacture	25	(1)
Future Development	25	(1)
Further Details of Carbon and Graphite Fibers	26	(6)
Aramid Fibers	32	(2)
Boron Fibers	34	(1)
Other New Fibers	34	(3)
Forms of Reinforcement	37	(10)
Tapes	37	(1)
Fabrics	38	(1)
Woven Fabric Weave Styles	38	(4)
Effect of Weave Style	42	(1)
Noncrimp Fabrics	43	(1)
Nonwoven Randomly Oriented Mats	43	(2)
Fiber and Fabric Glossary	45	(2)
Fiber Sizing and Finish	47	(5)
Glass Fiber Finishes	47	(3)
Carbon Fiber Finishes	50	(1)
Aramid Fiber Finishes	51	(1)
Sizing and Finish for New Types of Fibers and Fabrics	52	(1)
Matrix (Resin) Systems	52	(14)
Thermoplastic Resins	52	(1)
Thermosetting Resins	53	(4)
Properties Required of Matrix Resins and Adhesives	57	(1)
Physical and Chemical Properties	57	(2)
Mechanical Properties	59	(1)
Epoxy-Based Matrix Resins and Adhesives for Aerospace Use	59	(2)
Epoxy and Phenolic Pre-Pregs and Film Adhesives---Curing Stages	61	(2)
Mixing and Mix Ratios for Epoxy Wet Resins	63	(1)
Weighing	63	(1)
Mixing	64	(1)
Definitions Related to Mixing and Application	65	(1)
Polyester Resins	66	(1)
Adhesives	66	(10)
Liquid and Paste Adhesives	66	(2)
Foaming Adhesives	68	(1)
Film Adhesives	69	(2)
Glue-Line Thickness Control	71	(5)
In-Service Effects on Resin Systems	76	(1)
Core Materials	76	(14)
Wood	79	(1)
Foam Core Materials	80	(1)
Material Types	80	(1)
Foam Density	81	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages	81	(1)
Honeycomb Core Materials	82	(3)
Honeycomb Material Types	85	(3)
Cell Shapes	88	(1)
Honeycomb Densities and Cell Sizes	88	(2)
Fluted Core	90	(1)
Syntactic Core	90	(1)
Syntactic Foams and Potting Compounds	90	(3)
Filler Materials for Potting Compounds, Resin Systems, and Adhesives	92	(1)
Other Fillers	93	(1)
Protective Coatings	93	(11)
Sealants	93	(3)
Old-Generation Thiokol Sealants	96	(1)
New-Generation Polythioether Sealants	96	(1)
Silicone Sealants	97	(1)
Viton Rubber Sealants	98	(1)
Primers	98	(1)
Finishes	99	(2)
Conductive Coatings	101	(1)
Erosion-Resistant Coatings	102	(1)
Other Protective Coatings	103	(1)
References	104	(2)
Bibliography	106	(1)
Handling and Storage	107	(14)
Shipping and Receiving	107	(1)
Temperature Requirements	107	(1)
Storage Practices	108	(8)
Temperature Requirements	108	(1)
Dry Fabrics	108	(1)
Storage of Pre-Preg, Film, and Paste Adhesives, Potting Compounds, and Primers	108	(1)
Storage of Sealants for Aircraft Use	109	(1)
Storage of Consumable Items for Composite and Bonded Metal Repairs	110	(1)
Cleanliness and Damage Prevention	110	(2)
Moisture Damage Prevention	112	(1)
Identification	113	(1)
Release Notes and Approved Certificates	114	(2)
Shelf Life/Out Time	116	(1)
Kitting	117	(1)
Recertification	118	(1)
Care of Materials in the Hangar or Workshop	118	(3)
Manufacturing Techniques	121	(16)
Filament Winding	121	(2)
Lay-Up Methods for Fabrics and Tapes	123	(2)
Hand Lay-Up (Wet and Pre-Preg Laminating)	123	(1)
Automated Lay-Up	124	(1)
Pultrusion	125	(1)
Resin Transfer Molding	126	(2)
Injection Molding	128	(2)
Tow Placement	130	(1)
Press Molding	130	(1)
Vacuum Bonding	131	(1)
Autoclave Bonding	131	(4)
Oven Curing	135	(1)
References	136	(1)
Other Useful Reading	136	(1)
Original Design Criteria	137	(44)
Principal, Primary, and Secondary Structures	137	(5)
Sources of Damage to Composite Airframe Components	141	(1)
Consequences of Failure	142	(1)
Types of Composite Structures	142	(7)
Monolithic Laminated Structures (Solid Laminates)	142	(1)
Sandwich Structures	143	(6)
Ply Orientation	149	(5)
Warp Clock	149	(3)
Balance and Symmetry	152	(1)
Nesting and Stacking	153	(1)
Core Orientation	154	(1)
Operational Environment	155	(4)
Temperature	155	(1)
Humidity	156	(1)
Contaminants	156	(1)
Erosion	156	(2)
Thermal Stresses	158	(1)
Hygrothermal Effects	158	(1)
Fire Resistance	158	(1)
Electrical Requirements	159	(7)
Galvanic Corrosion	159	(4)
Electromagnetic Interference	163	(1)
Electrostatic Discharge	163	(1)
Lightning Strike Energy Dispersion	164	(1)
Radar Transmissivity	165	(1)
Mechanical Requirements	166	(5)
Tensile and Flexural Strength	166	(1)
Stiffness	167	(1)
Fatigue	167	(2)
Impact Resistance (Damage Tolerance)	169	(1)
Creep	170	(1)
Attachments/Joints	171	(5)
Bonded Joints	172	(3)
Mechanically Fastened/Riveted Joints	175	(1)
Other Design Requirements	176	(1)
Aerodynamic Smoothness	176	(1)
Weight and Balance	177	(1)
References	177	(4)
Safety and Environment	181	(28)
Introduction	181	(3)
Workshop Conditions for Good Bonding	184	(2)
Respirable Fibers and Dust	186	(2)
Fiberglass	186	(1)
Carbon and Graphite Fibers	187	(1)
Aramid Fibers	187	(1)
Sanding Dust	187	(1)
Fumes and Vapors	188	(4)
Resin Fumes	188	(1)
Solvent Vapors	189	(1)
Sealant Vapors	190	(1)
Coatings	190	(1)
Fuel	190	(1)
Acid Fumes and Splash	190	(1)
Exposure Limits	191	(1)
Skin Contact	192	(3)
Fibers in Contact with the Skin	192	(1)
Resins in Contact with the Skin	192	(1)
Solvents in Contact with the Skin	193	(1)
Selection of Suitable Gloves	193	(1)
Skin Creams for Personal Protection	194	(1)
Material Safety Data Sheets	195	(1)
Exothermic Reactions	195	(1)
Waste Disposal	196	(1)
Safety Procedures	197	(4)
Emergency Action First-Aid Procedures	197	(1)
General Safety Procedures	197	(1)
Personal Safety Precautions	198	(1)
Dermatitis	199	(2)
Action in the Event of a Chemical Spillage	201	(1)
Explosion Risk	202	(1)
Static Discharge and Fire Prevention	202	(2)
Static Discharge Prevention	202	(1)
Fire Prevention	203	(1)
Safety Requirements for Electrical Appliances	204	(1)
ISO Environmental Management Standards	205	(1)
References	206	(1)
Bibliography	207	(2)
Damage and Repair Assessment	209	(32)
Visual Inspection	210	(3)
Tap Test	213	(2)
Ultrasonic Inspection	215	(5)
X-Ray Methods	220	(1)
Eddy Current Inspection	221	(1)
Thermography	222	(1)
Bond Testers	223	(1)
Moisture Meters	224	(2)
Interferometry/Shearography	226	(1)
Damage Types	226	(6)
Sources of Mechanical Damage	232	(1)
Damage Mapping	233	(1)
Assessment of Damage Significance	233	(6)
References	239	(2)
Source Documents	241	(12)
Revision Systems	241	(1)
Effectivity	242	(1)
Drawing Numbering Systems	242	(3)
Internal Documents	245	(1)
Material and Process Specifications	245	(2)
Original Equipment Manufacturer Documents	247	(1)
Regulatory Documents	248	(1)
Air Transport Association of America ATA 100 System	249	(1)
Aircraft Maintenance Manual	249	(1)
Component Maintenance Manual	249	(1)
Overhaul Manual	250	(1)
Illustrated Parts Catalog	250	(1)
Structural Repair Manual	251	(1)
Engine Manual	252	(1)
Structural Repair Manual (SRM) Repair Method Selection	253	(14)
Component Identification	253	(1)
Damage Classification	254	(4)
Damage Terminology	254	(1)
Critical Areas	255	(1)
Allowable/Negligible Damage	255	(1)
Repairable Damage	256	(1)
Overhaul or Replace	256	(1)
Other Considerations	257	(1)
Repair Methods	258	(8)
Speedtape	259	(1)
Resin Sealing	259	(1)
Potted Repairs	259	(1)
Bolted Doublers (Metal Plates) and Bonded Doublers (Metal Plates) and Bonded Doublers (Composite Patches)	259	(1)
Pre-Cured Doublers Versus Co-Cured Doublers	260	(1)
Room-Temperature Wet Lay-Up	261	(1)
Elevated-Temperature Wet Lay-Up	262	(1)
Pre-Preg Repairs	262	(1)
Scarfed and Stepped Lap Repairs	263	(2)
Composite Repairs to Metals	265	(1)
References	266	(1)
Repair Techniques	267	(70)
Preparation	267	(18)
Paint Removal	270	(1)
Disbonding Methods	270	(1)
Disbonding Adhesively Bonded Metal Parts	270	(4)
Disbonding Composite Parts	274	(1)
Damage Removal	274	(1)
Damage Removal from Metal Parts	274	(2)
Removal of Skin and Doubler Material	276	(1)
Damage Removal from Composite Parts	277	(1)
Removal of Core Material	277	(1)
Removal of Surface Corrosion	278	(1)
Moisture and Contamination Removal	279	(1)
Surface Preparation of Composites---Repair Sanding and Ply Determination	280	(1)
Abrading	281	(1)
Taper Sanding/Scarfing	281	(1)
Step Sanding and Cutting	282	(2)
Water Break Test	284	(1)
Metallic Surface Preparation	285	(1)
Typical Repairs	285	(12)
Edge Band Repairs	285	(1)
Repair of Damage to Core and One Skin	286	(1)
Repair of Damage to Core and Both Skins	286	(1)
Hybrid Repairs	286	(5)
Blind Repairs	291	(1)
Injected Repairs	291	(4)
Solid Laminate Repairs	295	(1)
Potted Repairs	296	(1)
Metal-to-Metal Bonding	296	(1)
Plastic Welding (Solvent or Heat)	296	(1)
Adhesive Usage	297	(1)
Bagging Materials, Release Films, Release Fabrics, Peel Plies, Breather Cloths, Bleeder Cloths, Bleed-Out Fabrics, and Application Techniques	297	(22)
Terminology	298	(3)
Selection Criteria	301	(1)
Surface Versus Envelope Bagging	302	(2)
Pleating	304	(1)
Bagging Sequence	304	(1)
Vacuum Requirements and Principles	304	(1)
Vacuum Bonding	305	(1)
Application of Vacuum Pressure to Plates and Assemblies Using Nonperforated Honeycomb	306	(4)
Practical Techniques to Ensure Adequate Applied Vacuum Pressure to Parts Under Repair	310	(4)
Caul Plate and Dam Usage	314	(2)
Vertical Bleed Method	316	(1)
Squeeze-Out (Edge Bleed-Out) Method	316	(1)
Zero-Bleed Method	317	(1)
Ply Compaction and Debulking	318	(1)
Debagging Precautions and Typical Problems	318	(1)
Curing Stages and Temperatures---Heating Techniques	319	(11)
Curing Stage Definitions	319	(1)
Low-Temperature Cure	320	(1)
Elevated-Temperature Cure	320	(1)
Direct Versus Indirect Heating	321	(1)
Ramp Rates and Soak Cycles	321	(1)
Temperature Control and Monitoring	321	(2)
Thermocouple Placement	323	(1)
Temperature Control Problems	324	(1)
Hot Bonder and Heater Blanket Usage	324	(3)
Heat Sinks	327	(1)
Thermocouples	328	(1)
Distortion of Parts During Heating or Cooling	329	(1)
Post-Repair Inspection	330	(3)
Surface Restoration	333	(2)
References	335	(2)
Mechanical Fastening Systems	337	(40)
Introduction	337	(1)
Fastener Types	338	(5)
Fastener Standards	339	(1)
Fastener Compatibility	339	(1)
Rivets	340	(1)
Solid Rivets	340	(1)
Blind Rivets	341	(2)
Hollow End Rivets	343	(1)
Screws, Nuts, and Bolts	343	(10)
Specialty Fasteners (Special Bolts)	343	(3)
Lockbolts	346	(4)
Hex Drive Bolts	350	(1)
Specialty Blind Bolts	350	(3)
Spacers, Bolt Inserts, and Grommets	353	(4)
Hole Preparation	357	(5)
Drilling	357	(3)
Hole Sizes and Tolerances	360	(1)
Edge Distance and Fastener Pitch	361	(1)
Hole Protection	361	(1)
Fastener Installation and Removal	362	(10)
Fastener Installation	362	(9)
Fastener Removal	371	(1)
Fastener Substitution	372	(1)
Bonded Fasteners	372	(2)
Composite Fasteners	374	(1)
References	375	(2)
Documentation	377	(22)
Process Control Documents	377	(16)
Cure Chart/Data Strip	377	(1)
Routine and Nonroutine Work Documents	378	(1)
Routine Work Documents	378	(13)
Nonroutine Work Documents	391	(1)
Nondestructive and Destructive Inspection Data	392	(1)
Coupon Test Results	392	(1)
Clean-Room Temperature and Humidity	392	(1)
Return to Service/Log Book Sign-Offs	392	(1)
Calibration Records	393	(2)
Material Control Records	395	(1)
Component Documentation	396	(1)
Training Records	397	(2)
Shop Equipment and Hand Tools	399	(18)
Hand Tools and Techniques	399	(9)
Drills	399	(2)
High-Speed Grinders	401	(3)
Cutting Utensils	404	(1)
Hand Routers	405	(1)
Orbital Sanders	406	(1)
Cast Cutter (Oscillating Saw)	407	(1)
Painting Equipment	408	(1)
Resin Applicators	408	(1)
Shop Equipment	408	(3)
Bandsaws	408	(1)
Air Compressors	409	(2)
Heating Devices	411	(1)
Measuring Devices	412	(2)
Health and Safety Equipment	414	(2)
References	416	(1)
Tooling and Mold Making	417	(14)
Introduction	417	(1)
Caul Plate and Dam Fabrication	418	(2)
Splash Mold Making	420	(1)
Release Agents/Films	420	(1)
Simple Room-Temperature Tooling	421	(1)
Room-Temperature Curing Pre-Preg Tooling	422	(8)
Lay-Up	423	(1)
Debulk Procedure	424	(1)
Final Bagging Procedure	425	(1)
Autoclave Cure	425	(1)
Time Limits	426	(1)
Step Post-Curing Procedure After Room-Temperature or Low-Temperature Initial Cure	426	(1)
Support Structures	427	(2)
Initial Release Priming of New Composite Tools	429	(1)
Developments in Low-Temperature Curing Materials	430	(1)
References	430	(1)
Metal Bonding	431	(34)
Introduction	431	(11)
History and Requirements	431	(2)
Metal Bonding	433	(2)
Epoxy Adhesives	435	(1)
Requirements for Adhesives	435	(1)
Principles of Adhesion	436	(1)
Adhesion Theory	436	(3)
Environmental Durability	439	(1)
Temperature Effects	440	(1)
Humidity Effects	441	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Metal Bonding	441	(1)
Surface Preparation Methods	442	(16)
Abrasive Cleaning	444	(1)
Pasa-Jell	444	(2)
Hydrofluoric Acid Etching	446	(2)
Grit Blast/Silane	448	(1)
Alodine or Alochrom 1200	448	(2)
Boeing Boegel EPII Sol-Gel Process	450	(1)
FPL Etch	450	(1)
Chromic Acid Anodizing	451	(1)
Phosphoric Acid Anodizing	451	(1)
Phosphoric Acid Containment System (PACS)	452	(1)
Phosphoric Acid Non-Tank Anodizing (PANTA)	452	(5)
Metadalic/Sifco Selective Plating (U.K.) Ltd.	457	(1)
Ciba Laser Pretreatment	457	(1)
Other Surface Preparations	457	(1)
Primers	458	(4)
Reasons for Using Primers	458	(1)
Primer Types	459	(1)
Application of Primers	459	(2)
Curing/Drying	461	(1)
Thickness Verification	461	(1)
Handling Primers	462	(1)
References	463	(1)
Bibliography	464	(1)
Design Guide for Composite Parts	465	(30)
Introduction	465	(1)
Analysis of Reports Received	465	(25)
Other Required Design Features Not Mentioned in the Analyzed Reports	490	(4)
References	494	(1)
Repair Design	495	(118)
General Repair Design	495	(12)
Introduction to Repair Design	495	(1)
Laminate Loading	495	(1)
Tension and Compression Loads and Strains	495	(2)
Shear Stress and Strain	497	(1)
Poisson's Ratio	498	(2)
Repair Philosophy and Design Requirements	500	(1)
Certification Load Capacity	500	(5)
Repair Categorization	505	(2)
Laminate Repair Design	507	(33)
Introduction to Laminate Repair Design	507	(1)
Laminate Repair Design Considerations	507	(1)
Stiffness	507	(3)
Strength	510	(1)
Stability	511	(1)
Environmental Effects and Protection	511	(1)
Operational and Glass Transition Temperatures (Tg)	511	(1)
Lightning and Electrostatic Protection	512	(8)
Other Repair Design Considerations	520	(1)
Laminate Repair Recommendations	521	(1)
Laminate Analysis Techniques for Repair Design	522	(1)
Introduction to Simplified Analysis Techniques	522	(2)
Elastic Modulus (E) Analysis	524	(5)
Strength (F) Analysis	529	(2)
Poisson's Ratio (ν0) Analysis	531	(3)
In-Plane Shear Modulus (G)	534	(1)
In-Plane Shear Strength (τ)	535	(5)
Core Repair Design	540	(5)
Function and Loading of Core in Sandwich Construction	540	(4)
Core Material, Density, and Cell Size	544	(1)
Core Repair Design Recommendations	544	(1)
Bonded Joint Repair Design	545	(39)
Introduction to Bonded Joints	545	(1)
Types of Bonded Joints	545	(2)
Failure Modes of Bonded Joints	547	(2)
Adhesive Behavior in Bonded Joints	549	(1)
Adhesive Shear Stress and Strain	549	(2)
Elastic and Plastic Adhesive Behavior	551	(9)
Temperature and Moisture Effects	560	(3)
Joint Adherend Effects---Stiffness Imbalance and Thermal Mismatch	563	(5)
Recommended Joint Overlaps and Simplistic Analysis	568	(2)
Adhesive Peel Stress and Displacement	570	(11)
Durability---Fatigue, Creep, and Environmental Effects	581	(1)
Bonded Joint Repair Considerations	582	(1)
Bonded Joint Repair Design Recommendations	583	(1)
Mechanically Fastened Joints	584	(25)
Introduction to Mechanically Fastened Joints	584	(1)
Fastened Laminate Failure Modes	585	(3)
Fastener Failure Modes	588	(1)
Open-Hole Stress Concentrations---Composites Versus Metals	588	(1)
Loading of Mechanically Fastened Joints	588	(4)
Loaded Fastener Holes	592	(2)
Fastener Load Distribution and Joint Geometry	594	(2)
Lay-Up Orientation for Fastened Joints	596	(1)
Pad-Ups and Hybrid Material Application	597	(3)
Fatigue of Fastened Composite Joints	600	(1)
Effects of Gaps and Shims	601	(1)
Fastener Selection	601	(3)
Mechanically Fastened Repairs in Sandwich Panels	604	(4)
Fastened Joint Repair Recommendations	608	(1)
References	609	(3)
Bibliography	612	(1)
Additional Information	613	(4)
Index	617	(20)
About the Authors	637