Chemical Process Safety : Fundamentals with Applications

by Crowl, Daniel A.; Louvar, Joseph F.

• ISBN13: 9780130181763
• ISBN10: 0130181765
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-10-16
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

bull; bull;Combines academic theory with practical industry experience bull;Updated to include the latest regulations and references bull;Covers hazard identification, risk assessment, and inherent safety bull;Case studies and problem sets enhance learning Long-awaited revision of the industry best seller. This fully revised second EDITION of Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications combines rigorous academic methods with real-life industrial experience to create a unique resource for students and professionals alike. The primary focus on technical fundamentals of chemical process safety provides a solid groundwork for understanding, with full coverage of both prevention and mitigation measures. Subjects include: bull; bull;Toxicology and industrial hygiene bull;Vapor and liquid releases and dispersion modeling bull;Flammability characterization bull;Relief and explosion venting In addition to an overview of government regulations, the book introduces the resources of the AICHE Center for Chemical Process Safety library. Guidelines are offered for hazard identification and risk assessment. The book concludes with case histories drawn directly from the AUTHORs' experience in the field. A perfect reference for industry professionals, Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications, Second EDITION is also ideal for teaching at the graduate and senior undergraduate levels. Each chapter includes 30 problems, and a solutions manual is now available for instructors.

Author Biography

Daniel A. Crowl is the Herbert H. Dow Professor for Chemical Process Safety at Michigan Technological University Joseph F. Louvar retired as director of BASF's Chemical Engineering Department to become a professor at Wayne State University, specializing in chemical process safety, risk assessment, and the design of experiments

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Nomenclature	xv
Introduction	1	(34)
Safety Programs	2	(2)
Engineering Ethics	4	(1)
Accident and Loss Statistics	4	(8)
Acceptable Risk	12	(2)
Public Perceptions	14	(1)
The Nature of the Accident Process	15	(5)
Inherent Safety	20	(3)
Four Significant Disasters	23	(12)
Flixborough, England	23	(2)
Bhopal, India	25	(1)
Seveso, Italy	26	(1)
Pasadena, Texas	27	(2)
Suggested Reading	29	(1)
Problems	30	(5)
Toxicology	35	(28)
How Toxicants Enter Biological Organisms	36	(3)
Gastrointestinal Tract	37	(1)
Skin	37	(1)
Respiratory System	38	(1)
How Toxicants Are Eliminated from Biological Organisms	39	(1)
Effects of Toxicants on Biological Organisms	40	(1)
Toxicological Studies	41	(1)
Dose versus Response	42	(6)
Models for Dose and Response Curves	48	(6)
Relative Toxicity	54	(1)
Threshold Limit Values	54	(9)
Suggested Reading	59	(1)
Problems	59	(4)
Industrial Hygiene	63	(46)
Government Regulations	64	(10)
Laws and Regulations	64	(1)
Creating a Law	64	(1)
Creating a Regulation	64	(4)
OSHA: Process Safety Management	68	(3)
EPA: Risk Management Plan	71	(3)
Industrial Hygiene: Identification	74	(4)
Material Safety Data Sheets	74	(4)
Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation	78	(16)
Evaluating Exposures to Volatile Toxicants by Monitoring	79	(4)
Evaluation of Worker Exposures to Dusts	83	(1)
Evaluationg Worker Exposures to Noise	84	(1)
Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors	85	(9)
Industrial Hygiene: Control	94	(15)
Respirators	96	(1)
Ventilation	97	(6)
Suggested Reading	103	(1)
Problems	104	(5)
Source Models	109	(62)
Introduction to Source Models	109	(3)
Flow of Liquid through a Hole	112	(4)
Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank	116	(5)
Flow of Liquids through Pipes	121	(9)
2-K Method	124	(6)
Flow of Vapor through Holes	130	(6)
Flow of Gases through Pipes	136	(15)
Adiabatic Flows	136	(7)
Isothermal Flows	143	(8)
Flashing Liquids	151	(6)
Liquid Pool Evaporation or Boiling	157	(2)
Realistic and Worst-Case Releases	159	(1)
Conservative Analysis	159	(12)
Suggested Reading	161	(1)
Problems	162	(9)
Toxic Release and Dispersion Models	171	(54)
Parameters Affecting Dispersion	172	(4)
Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models	176	(19)
Steady-State Continuous Point Release with No Wind	180	(1)
Puff with No Wind	181	(1)
Non-Steady-State Continuous Point Release with No Wind	182	(1)
Steady-State Continuous Point Source Release with Wind	183	(1)
Puff with No Wind and Eddy Diffusivity Is a Function of Direction	183	(1)
Steady-State Continuous Point Source Release with Wind and Eddy Diffusivity Is a Function of Direction	184	(1)
Puff with Wind	184	(1)
Puff with no Wind and with Source on Ground	185	(1)
Steady-State Plume with Source on Ground	185	(1)
Continuous Steady-State Source with Source at Height Hr above the Ground	186	(1)
Pasquill-Gifford Model	186	(4)
Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Ground Level, Coordinates Fixed at Release Point, Constant Wind Only in x Direction with Constant Velocity u	190	(1)
Plume with Continous Steady-State Source at Ground Level and Wind Moving in x Direction at Constant Velocity u	191	(1)
Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Height Hr above Ground Level and Wind Moving in x Direction at Constant Velocity u	192	(1)
Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height Hr above Ground Level and a Coordinate System on the Ground That Moves with the Puff	193	(1)
Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height Hr above Ground Level and a Coordinate System Fixed on the Ground at the Release Point	194	(1)
Worst-Case Conditions	194	(1)
Limitations to Pasqull-Gifford Dispersion Modeling	194	(1)
Dense Gas Dispersion	195	(4)
Toxic Effect Criteria	199	(13)
Effect of Release Momentum and Buoyancy	212	(1)
Release Mitigation	213	(12)
Suggested Reading	214	(1)
Problems	215	(10)
Fires and Explosions	225	(66)
The Fire Triangle	225	(2)
Distinction between Fires and Explosions	227	(1)
Definitions	227	(2)
Flammability Characteristics of Liquids and Vapors	229	(9)
Liquids	230	(3)
Gases and Vapors	233	(1)
Vapor Mixtures	233	(2)
Flammability Limite Dependence on Temperature	235	(1)
Flammability Limit Dependence on Pressure	236	(1)
Estimating Flammability Limits	236	(2)
Limiting Oxygen Concentration and Inerting	238	(2)
Flammability Diagram	240	(8)
Ignition Energy	248	(1)
Autoignition	249	(1)
Auto-Oxidation	249	(1)
Adiabatic Compression	249	(2)
Ignition Sources	251	(1)
Sprays and Mists	252	(1)
Explosions	252	(39)
Detonation and Deflagration	253	(2)
Confined Explosions	255	(10)
Blast Damage Resulting from Overpressure	265	(4)
TNT Equivalency	269	(2)
TNO Multi-Energy Method	271	(3)
Energy of Chemical Explosions	274	(2)
Energy of Mechanical Explosions	276	(3)
Missile Damage	279	(1)
Blast Damage to People	279	(2)
Vapor Cloud Explosions	281	(1)
Boiling-Liquid Expanding-Vapor Explosions	282	(1)
Suggested Reading	282	(1)
Problems	283	(8)
Designs to Prevent Fires and Explosions	291	(62)
Inerting	292	(15)
Vacuum Purging	292	(3)
Pressure Purging	295	(2)
Combined Pressure-Vacuum Purging	297	(1)
Vacuum and Pressure Purging with Impure Nitrogen	298	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Pressure and Vacuum Inerting Procedures	299	(1)
Sweep-Through Purging	299	(2)
Siphon Purging	301	(1)
Using the Flammability Diagram To Avoid Flammable Atmospheres	301	(6)
Static Electricity	307	(23)
Fundamentals of Static Charge	307	(1)
Charge Accumulation	308	(1)
Electrostatic Discharges	309	(2)
Energy from Electrostatic Discharges	311	(1)
Energy of Electrostatic Ignition Sources	312	(1)
Streaming Current	313	(3)
Electrostatic Voltage Drops	316	(1)
Energy of Charged Capacitors	316	(5)
Capacitance of a Body	321	(3)
Balance of Charges	324	(6)
Controlling Static Electricity	330	(7)
General Design Methods to Prevent Electrostatic Ignitions	331	(1)
Relaxation	332	(1)
Bonding and Grounding	332	(1)
Dip Pipes	333	(3)
Increasing Conductivity with Additives	336	(1)
Handling Solids without Flammable Vapors	337	(1)
Handling Solids with Flammable Vapors	337	(1)
Explosion-Proof Equipment and Instruments	337	(3)
Explosion-Proof Housings	339	(1)
Area and Material Classification	339	(1)
Design of an XP Area	340	(1)
Ventilation	340	(3)
Open-Air Plants	340	(1)
Plants Inside Buildings	341	(2)
Sprinkler Systems	343	(4)
Miscellaneous Designs for Preventing Fires and Explosions	347	(6)
Suggested Reading	347	(1)
Problems	348	(5)
Introduction to Reliefs	353	(30)
Relief Concepts	354	(2)
Definitions	356	(1)
Location of Reliefs	357	(3)
Relief Types	360	(4)
Relief Scenarios	364	(1)
Data for Sizing Reliefs	365	(3)
Relief Systems	368	(15)
Relief Installation Practices	368	(1)
Relief Design Considerations	368	(3)
Horizontal Knockout Drum	371	(4)
Flares	375	(1)
Scrubbers	376	(1)
Condensers	376	(1)
Suggested Reading	376	(1)
Problems	377	(6)
Relief Sizing	383	(46)
Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Liquid Service	384	(5)
Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service	389	(5)
Rupture Disc Reliefs in Liquid Service	394	(1)
Rupture Disc Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service	394	(1)
Two-Phase Flow during Runaway Reaction Relief	395	(9)
Simplified Nomograph Method	401	(3)
Deflagration Venting for Dust and Vapor Explosions	404	(7)
Vents for Low-Pressure Structures	406	(2)
Vents for High-Pressure Structures	408	(3)
Venting for Fire External to Process Vessels	411	(4)
Reliefs for Thermal Expansion of Process Fluids	415	(14)
Suggested Reading	418	(2)
Problems	420	(9)
Hazards Identification	429	(42)
Process Hazards Checklists	432	(1)
Hazards Surveys	432	(16)
Hazards and Operability Studies	448	(6)
Safety Reviews	454	(5)
Other Methods	459	(12)
Suggested Reading	460	(1)
Problems	460	(11)
Risk Assessment	471	(44)
Review of Probability Theory	472	(14)
Interactions between Process Units	474	(6)
Revealed and Unreveled Failures	480	(4)
Probability of Coincidence	484	(2)
Redundancy	486	(1)
Common Mode Failures	486	(1)
Event Trees	486	(5)
Fault Trees	491	(8)
Determining the Minimal Cut Sets	494	(3)
Quantitative Calculations Using the Fault Tree	497	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Fault Trees	498	(1)
Relationship between Fault Trees and Event Trees	498	(1)
QRA and LOPA	499	(16)
Quantitative Risk Analysis	499	(1)
Layer of Protection Analysis	500	(3)
Consequence	503	(1)
Frequency	503	(4)
Suggested Reading	507	(1)
Problems	508	(7)
Accident Investigations	515	(20)
Learning from Accidents	515	(1)
Layered Investigations	516	(2)
Investigation Process	518	(1)
Investigation Summary	519	(2)
Aids for Diagnosis	521	(7)
Fires	522	(1)
Explosions	522	(1)
Sources of Ignition in Vessels	523	(1)
Pressure Effects	523	(2)
Medical Evidence	525	(1)
Miscellaneous Aids to Diagnosis	525	(3)
Aids for Recommendations	528	(7)
Control Plant Modifications	528	(1)
User-Friendly Designs	529	(1)
Block Valves	529	(1)
Double Block and Bleed	530	(1)
Preventive Maintenance	530	(1)
Analyzers	531	(1)
Suggested Reading	532	(1)
Problems	532	(3)
Case Histories	535	(26)
Static Electricity	536	(4)
Tank Car Loading Explosion	536	(1)
Explosion in a Centrifuge	536	(1)
Duct System Explosion	537	(1)
Conductor in a Solids Storage Bin	537
Pigment and Filter	536	(1)
Pipefitter's Helper	536	(1)
Lessons Learned	536	(4)
Chemical Reactivity	540	(6)
Bottle of Isopropyl Ether	540	(1)
Nitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid Decomposition	540	(1)
Organic Oxidation	541	(1)
Lessons Learned	541	(5)
System Designs	546	(5)
Ethylene Oxide Explosion	546	(1)
Ethylene Explosion	546	(1)
Butadiene Explosion	546	(1)
Light Hydrocarbon Explosion	547	(1)
Pump Vibration	547	(1)
Pump Failure	547	(1)
Ethylene Explosion (1)	548	(1)
Ethylene Explosion (2)	548	(1)
Ethylene Oxide Explosion	548	(1)
Lessons Learned	549	(2)
Procedures	551	(5)
Leak Testing a Vessel	552	(1)
Man Working in Vessel	552	(1)
Vinyl Chloride Explosion	552	(1)
Dangerous Water Expansion	553	(1)
Phenol-Formaldehyde Runaway Reaction	553	(1)
Conditions and Secondary Reaction Cause Explosion	554	(1)
Fuel-Blending Tank Explosion	555	(1)
Lessons Learned	556	(1)
Conclusion	556	(5)
Suggested Reading	557	(1)
Problems	557	(4)
Appendix A: Unit Conversion Constants	561	(4)
Appendix B: Flammability Data for Selected Hydrocarbons	565	(6)
Appendix C: Detailed Equations for Flammability Diagrams	571	(10)
Equations Useful for Placing Vessels into and out of Service	576	(5)
Appendix D: Formal Safety Review Report for Example 10-4	581	(10)
Appendix E: Saturation Vapor Pressure Data	591

Excerpts

PrefaceThis second edition ofChemical Process Safetyis designed to enhance the process of teaching and applying the fundamentals of chemical process safety. It is appropriate for an industrial reference, a senior-level undergraduate course, or a graduate course in chemical process safety. It can be used by anyone interested in improving chemical process safety, including chemical and mechanical engineers and chemists. More material is presented than can be accommodated in a 3-credit course, providing instructors with the opportunity to emphasize their topics of interest.The primary objective of this textbook is to encapsulate the important technical fundamentals of chemical process safety. The emphasis on the fundamentals will help the student and practicing scientist to understand the concepts and apply them accordingly. This application requires a significant quantity of fundamental knowledge and technology.The second edition has been rewritten to include new process safety technology and new references that have appeared since the first edition was published in 1990. It also includes our combined experiences of teaching process safety in both industry and academia during the past 10 years.Significant modifications were made to the following topics: dispersion modeling, source modeling, flammability characterization, explosion venting, fundamentals of electrostatics, and case histories. This new edition also includes selected materials from the latest AICHE Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) books and is now an excellent introduction to the CCPS library.This second edition also includes more problems (now 30 per chapter). A complete set of problem solutions is available to instructors using the book in their curriculum. These changes fulfill the requests of many professors who have used this textbook.We continue to believe that a textbook on safety is possible only with both industrial and academic inputs. The industrial input ensures that the material is industrially relevant. The academic input ensures that the material is presented on a fundamental basis to help professors and students understand the concepts. Although the authors are (now) both from universities, one has over 30 years of relevant experience in industry (J. F. L.) and the other (D. A. C.) has accumulated significant industrial experience since the writing of the first edition.Since the first edition was published, many universities have developed courses or course content in chemical process safety. This new emphasis on process safety is the result of the positive influences from industry and the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Based on faculty feedback, this textbook is an excellent application of the fundamental topics that are taught in the first three years of the undergraduate education.Although professors normally have little background in chemical process safety, they have found that the concepts in this text and the accompanying problems and solutions are easy to learn and teach. Professors have also found that industrial employees are enthusiastic and willing to give specific lectures on safety to enhance their courses.This textbook is designed for a dedicated course in chemical process safety. However, we continue to believe that chemical process safety should be part of every undergraduate and graduate course in chemistry and chemical and mechanical engineering, just as it is a part of all the industrial experiences. This text is an excellent reference for these courses. This textbook can also be used as a reference for a design course.Some will remark that our presentation is not complete or that some details are missing. The purpose of this book, however, is not to be complete but to provide a starting point for those who wish to learn about this important area. This book, for example, has a companion text titledHealth