Chemistry for the Biosciences The Essential Concepts

by Bradshaw, Tony; Crowe, Jonathan; Monk, Paul

• ISBN13: 9780199280971
• ISBN10: 0199280975
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2006-06-20
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

Chemistry pervades our life, giving shape and character to the world around us. It moulds our climate, fuels our transport, gives food its taste and smell. Most of all, chemistry powers life itself. Chemistry for the Biosciences leads students through the essential concepts that are central to understanding biological systems, using everyday examples and analogies to build their confidence in an often daunting subject. Placing an emphasis on clear explanations, it fosters understanding asopposed to rote learning and, by focusing on the key themes that unify the subject, shows how integral chemistry is to the biosciences. With scientific research placing more emphasis on the interface of chemistry and biology than ever before, few can argue the importance to the biology student of mastering the essential chemical concepts that underpin the subject. Chemistry for the Biosciences is the ideal teaching and learningresource to ensure today's biology students grasp these concepts, and appreciate their importance throughout the subject. The Online Resource Centre features illustrations from the book available to download to facilitate lecture preparation and a test bank of multiple choice questions for students.

Table of Contents

Welcome to the book	xvii
Acknowledgements	xxi
Periodic table of the elements	xxii
Introduction: why bother with chemistry?	1	(6)
Science: revealing our world	1	(1)
I'm a biologist: why bother with chemistry?	1	(1)
The essential concepts	2	(2)
The language of chemistry	4	(3)
Units: making sense of numbers	4	(1)
Symbols	5	(2)
Atoms: the foundations of life	7	(28)
The chemical elements	7	(2)
Atomic composition	9	(9)
Protons, electrons, and electrical charge	10	(1)
Identifying the composition of an atom: atomic number and mass number	10	(2)
The formation of ions	12	(2)
Isotopes: varying the number of neutrons	14	(1)
Relative abundances and atomic mass	15	(2)
Protons and chemical identity	17	(1)
Atomic structure	18	(2)
Atomic orbitals	18	(2)
The energy of atoms	20	(10)
Orbitals and energy levels	20	(1)
Filling up orbitals - the building-up principle	21	(2)
The energy of subshells	23	(2)
Moving between orbitals: electron excitation	25	(5)
Energy levels and quantization	30	(1)
Valence shells and valence electrons	30	(1)
The periodic table	31	(4)
The variety of life: not so varied after all?	32	(3)
Compounds and chemical bonding: bringing atoms together	35	(38)
The formation of compounds	35	(3)
The chemical bond: bridging the gap between atoms	36	(1)
Which electron configuration is most stable?	37	(1)
Valence shells and Lewis dot symbols	38	(2)
Lone pairs of electrons	39	(1)
Bond formation: redistributing valence electrons	40	(1)
The ionic bond: transferring electrons	41	(6)
Ionic bonding and full shells: how many electrons are transferred?	43	(4)
The chemical formula	47	(1)
The covalent bond: sharing electrons	48	(7)
Covalent compounds and electrical charge	49	(1)
The molecular formula: identifying the components of a covalent compound	49	(1)
Covalent bonding and the distribution of electrons	49	(2)
Molecular orbitals	51	(3)
Sigma and pi orbitals	54	(1)
The formation of multiple bonds	55	(3)
Valency and number of bonds	55	(1)
Sharing one pair of electrons: the single bond	56	(1)
Sharing two pairs of electrons: the double bond	56	(1)
Sharing three pairs of electrons: the triple bond	57	(1)
Dative bonding: covalent bonding with a twist	58	(2)
Aromatic compounds and conjugated bonds	60	(4)
Polyatomic compounds	64	(2)
Ionic versus covalent bonding	66	(7)
Electronegativity: how easily can electrons be transferred?	66	(4)
Ionic and covalent bonding in nature: which is most prevalent?	70	(3)
Molecular forces: holding it all together	73	(43)
Chemical bonding versus non-covalent forces	73	(3)
Intramolecular versus intermolecular forces	74	(1)
The significance of non-covalent forces	75	(1)
The key characteristics of non-covalent forces	76	(1)
Polarity and polarization	77	(5)
How strongly is a bond polarized?	80	(1)
Non-polar covalent bonds	80	(1)
Polar bonds in non-polar molecules	80	(2)
The key non-covalent forces	82	(22)
Dispersion forces	82	(4)
Hydrophobic forces, and dispersion forces in biological systems	86	(4)
Permanent dipolar interactions	90	(3)
Hydrogen bonds	93	(8)
Ionic forces	101	(3)
Non-covalent forces: strength in numbers	104	(3)
Breaking intermolecular forces: the three states	107	(9)
Changing states	108	(3)
The transition between states	111	(1)
The impact of non-covalent interactions on melting and boiling points	112	(4)
Organic compounds 1: the framework of life	116	(30)
Organic chemistry	116	(4)
Carbon: its defining features	117	(1)
The nature of organic compounds	118	(2)
The framework of organic compounds	120	(11)
Representing chemical structures: the structural formula	121	(1)
The alkanes: the backbone of organic chemistry	122	(4)
The shape of organic compounds	126	(2)
Physical properties of the alkanes	128	(1)
Chemical properties of the alkanes	129	(2)
Functional groups and the carbon framework	131	(6)
The double bond	132	(3)
Physical properties of alkenes	135	(2)
Adding functional groups to the carbon framework	137	(9)
Alkyl groups	138	(1)
The aryl group: a special hydrocarbon group	139	(1)
Functional groups and the properties of organic compounds	140	(6)
Organic compounds 2: adding function to the framework of life	146	(37)
Organic compounds with oxygen-based functional groups	146	(21)
The alcohols: the hydroxyl group	147	(4)
The ethers: the alkoxy group	151	(2)
The aldehydes and ketones: the carbonyl group	153	(6)
The carboxylic acids: combining the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups	159	(3)
The esters: a modified carboxyl group	162	(5)
Organic compounds and nitrogen-based functional groups	167	(11)
The amines: the amino group	167	(7)
The amides: the amide group	174	(4)
Other functional group	178	(5)
The thiols and the sulfur-based functional group	178	(1)
The haloalkanes and the halogen-based functional group	179	(4)
Biological macromolecules: providing life's infrastructure	183	(27)
Amino acids and proteins	183	(4)
The composition of amino acids	183	(1)
Formation of polypeptides	184	(3)
Carbohydrates	187	(5)
The composition of monosaccharides	189	(3)
Lipids	192	(9)
Steroids	192	(3)
Triacylglycerols	195	(3)
Glycerophospholipids	198	(3)
Nucleic acids	201	(9)
Nucleotides and their composition	201	(2)
Formation of nucleic acids	203	(2)
The shape of nucleic acids	205	(2)
Nucleic acids: nature's energy stores	207	(3)
Molecular shape and structure 1: from atoms to small molecules	210	(31)
The link between structure and function	210	(1)
Hierarchies of structure	211	(1)
The shape of small molecules	211	(4)
Bond lengths	212	(3)
Bond angles	215	(7)
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)	216	(4)
VSEPR theory and the shape of molecules with multiple bonds	220	(2)
Hybridization and shape	222	(9)
Hybridizing different numbers of orbitals	224	(7)
Bond rotation and conformation	231	(10)
Conformation versus configuration	233	(8)
Molecular shape and structure 2: the shape of large molecules	241	(26)
Constructing larger molecules	241	(5)
The geometry of joined atoms	242	(1)
The sequence of monomers within a polymer	242	(2)
Bonding between monomers	244	(2)
The shape of larger molecules	246	(11)
Building up structural complexity: a structural hierarchy	246	(9)
The hierarchy of biological structure: an overview	255	(2)
Maintaining shape, and allowing flexibility	257	(10)
The importance of structural flexibility: muscle contraction	259	(1)
The importance of structural flexibility: enzymes	260	(7)
Chemical analysis 1: how do we know what is there?	267	(38)
What is chemical analysis?	267	(1)
How do we separate out what is there?	268	(9)
Filtration	269	(1)
Chromatography	270	(4)
Electrophoresis	274	(3)
How do we determine what is there?	277	(8)
Measuring mass: mass spectrometry	278	(7)
Building up the picture: spectroscopic techniques	285	(20)
Spectroscopy and electromagnetic radiation	288	(1)
Characterizing the carbon framework: nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy	288	(6)
Identifying functional groups: infrared spectroscopy	294	(6)
Establishing 3-D structure: X-ray crystallography	300	(5)
Chemical analysis 2: how do we know how much is there?	305	(27)
The mole	305	(5)
Connecting molar quantities to mass	306	(4)
Concentrations	310	(8)
Calculating the number of moles of substance in a sample of solution	310	(2)
Preparing a solution of known concentration	312	(2)
Calculating the concentration of a solution	314	(1)
Changing the concentration: solutions and dilutions	315	(3)
Measuring concentrations	318	(14)
UV-visible spectrophotometry	318	(7)
Titrations	325	(3)
Electrochemical sensors	328	(4)
Isomerism: generating chemical variety	332	(40)
Isomers	332	(1)
Structural isomers	333	(11)
Distinguishing structural isomers	333	(2)
Structural isomerism and the shape of the carbon framework	335	(2)
Structural isomerism and the positioning of functional groups	337	(5)
Structural isomerism: unifying chemical families	342	(2)
Stereoisomers	344	(9)
Geometric isomers	345	(6)
Enantiomers	351	(2)
Chirality	353	(10)
How do we distinguish one enantiomer from its mirror image?	358	(2)
Chirality in biological systems	360	(3)
The chemistry of isomers	363	(9)
The biological chemistry of enantiomers	366	(1)
The impact of chirality on medicinal chemistry	367	(5)
Chemical reactions: bringing molecules to life	372	(44)
What is a chemical reaction?	372	(3)
The stoichiometry of chemical reactions	373	(2)
The molecular basis of chemical reactions	375	(3)
How do valence electrons move during chemical reactions?	375	(1)
Depicting the movement of electrons	376	(2)
Heterolytic reactions	378	(6)
Oxidation and reduction	380	(1)
Heterolytic reactions and the polarization of bonds	381	(3)
Homolytic reactions	384	(8)
Initiation	386	(1)
Propagation	387	(2)
Termination	389	(3)
Reaction mechanisms	392	(24)
Transition states and intermediates	393	(3)
Substitution	396	(4)
Addition	400	(6)
Elimination	406	(1)
Condensation	407	(5)
Biochemical reactions: from food to energy	412	(4)
Energy: what makes reactions go?	416	(35)
What is energy?	416	(7)
Kinetic energy	417	(1)
Potential energy	418	(3)
Chemical energy	421	(2)
Energy transfer	423	(8)
The transfer of energy as work	425	(1)
The transfer of energy as heat	426	(1)
Heat versus temperature	427	(1)
The spontaneous transfer of heat	428	(3)
Energy transfer and chemical reactions	431	(7)
How can we determine the enthalpy change for a reaction?	432	(2)
Depicting enthalpy changes: the energy diagram	434	(2)
Enthalpy changes and the stability of chemical compounds	436	(2)
Entropy: the spread of energy as the engine of change	438	(6)
The link between entropy and energy	439	(3)
The overall entropy change in a universe	442	(2)
Gibbs free energy: the driving force of chemical reactions	444	(7)
The Gibbs free energy of spontaneous reactions	445	(2)
Gibbs free energy and cell metabolism	447	(4)
Kinetics: what affects the speed of a reaction?	451	(31)
The rate of a reaction	451	(6)
What is the rate of a reaction?	453	(4)
The collision theory of reaction rates	457	(4)
Increasing the concentration	459	(1)
Increasing the temperature	460	(1)
The activation energy: getting reactions started	461	(2)
Breaking the energy barrier: the transition state	463	(1)
Catalysis: lowering the activation energy	463	(7)
The role of catalysts in chemical reactions	465	(5)
Enzymes: important biological catalysts	470	(6)
The specificity of enzymes	471	(3)
What happens during enzyme catalysis?	474	(2)
Enzyme kinetics	476	(6)
Increasing substrate concentration: the limitation of the enzyme's active site	477	(1)
Increasing temperature: the limitation of being a protein	478	(4)
Equilibria: how far do reactions go?	482	(33)
Equilibrium reactions	482	(6)
Equilibrium reactions and chemical change	483	(4)
Does it matter which reaction is `forward' and which is `back'?	487	(1)
Forward and back reactions: where is the balance struck?	488	(7)
The equilibrium constant	489	(2)
The magnitude of equilibrium constants	491	(4)
The reaction quotient	495	(4)
Predicting the direction of a reaction	497	(2)
Perturbing an equilibrium	499	(10)
Changing the concentration of the system	501	(3)
Changing the pressure or volume of the system	504	(2)
Changing the temperature	506	(1)
Using chemical equilibria to our advantage	507	(2)
Catalysts and chemical equilibria	509	(1)
Free energy and chemical equilibria	509	(6)
Gibbs free energy and the position of equilibrium	512	(3)
The aqueous environment: the medium of life	515	(35)
Acids and bases: making life happen	515	(7)
Defining acids and bases	516	(1)
Acids and bases in aqueous solution	517	(1)
Pairing up acids and bases: the conjugate acid-base pair	518	(4)
The strength of acids and bases: to what extent does the dissociation reaction occur?	522	(6)
Juggling protons: the tug-of-war between conjugate acid-base pairs	524	(1)
The acid dissociation constant: to what extent does an acid dissociate?	525	(1)
The base dissociation constant: to what extent does a base dissociate?	526	(2)
Keeping things balanced: the ion product of water	528	(4)
Making use of the ion product of water	530	(1)
Linking Kw' Ka and Kb	531	(1)
Measuring concentrations: the pH scale	532	(8)
The pH of strong and weak acids	534	(3)
Changing pH: neutralization reactions	537	(1)
pOH: the basic equivalent of pH	538	(2)
Buffer solutions: keeping pH the same	540	(10)
How does a buffer solution work?	540	(5)
The pH of buffer solutions	545	(5)
Epilogue	550	(1)
Bibliography	551	(2)
Answers to self-check questions	553	(6)
Index	559