Chemistry And Chemical Reactivity

by Kotz, John C.; Treichel, Paul M.; Weaver, Gabriela C.

• ISBN13: 9780534997663
• ISBN10: 053499766X
• Edition: 6th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-01-20
• Publisher: BROOKS COLE

Summary

CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL REACTIVITY has been revised to help students get to a higher level of understanding of General Chemistry-concepts. This revision includes General ChemistryNow, a new CD-ROM and web-based learning system that focuses on goals, connections, and complete integration with the text.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxiii
A Preface to Students	2	(8)
Part 1 The Basic Tools of Chemistry
Matter and Measurement	10	(48)
How Hot Is It?	10	(2)
Classifying Matter	12	(5)
States of Matter and Kinetic-Molecular Theory	13	(1)
Matter at the Macroscopic and Particulate Levels	14	(1)
Pure Substances	14	(1)
Mixtures: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous	15	(2)
Elements and Atoms	17	(1)
Compounds and Molecules	18	(2)
Physical Properties	20	(3)
Density	20	(2)
Temperature Dependence of Physical Properties	22	(1)
Extensive and Intensive Properties	23	(1)
Physical and Chemical Changes	23	(2)
Units of Measurement	25	(7)
Temperature Scales	26	(2)
Length	28	(2)
Volume	30	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: It's a Nanoworld!	31	(1)
Mass	32	(1)
Making Measurements: Precision, Accuracy, and Experimental Error	32	(3)
A Closer Look: Standard Deviation	33	(2)
Mathematics of Chemistry	35	(23)
Exponential or Scientific Notation	35	(3)
Significant Figures	38	(3)
Problem Solving by Dimensional Analysis	41	(2)
Graphing	43	(1)
Problem Solving and Chemical Arithmetic	44	(2)
Chapter Goals Revisited	46	(1)
Key Equations	47	(1)
Study Questions	48	(10)
Atoms and Elements	58	(38)
Stardust	58	(2)
Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons: Development of Atomic Structure	60	(7)
Electricity	60	(1)
Radioactivity	60	(1)
Cathode-Ray Tubes and the Characterization of Electrons	61	(3)
Protons	64	(1)
Neutrons	64	(1)
Historical Perspectives: Uncovering Atomic Structure	65	(1)
The Nucleus of the Atom	65	(2)
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass	67	(2)
Atomic Number	67	(1)
Relative Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit	67	(1)
Mass Number	67	(2)
Isotopes	69	(3)
Isotope Abundance	69	(1)
Determining Atomic Mass and Isotope Abundance	70	(1)
A Closer Look: Atomic Mass and the Mass Defect	71	(1)
Atomic Weight	72	(1)
Atoms and the Mole	73	(4)
Historical Perspectives: Amedeo Avogadro and His Number	74	(1)
Molar Mass	74	(3)
The Periodic Table	77	(5)
Features of the Periodic Table	77	(3)
Developing the Periodic Table	80	(1)
Historical Perspectives: Periodic Table	81	(1)
An Overview of the Elements, Their Chemistry, and the Periodic Table	82	(6)
Group 1A, Alkali Metals: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr	82	(1)
Group 2A, Alkaline Earth Metals: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra	82	(1)
Group 3A: B, Al, Ga, In, TI	82	(1)
Group 4A: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb	83	(2)
Group 5A: N, P, As, Sb, Bi	85	(1)
Group 6A: O, S, Se, Te, Po	85	(1)
Group 7A, Halogens: F, Cl, Br, I, At	86	(1)
Group 8A, Noble Gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn	86	(1)
The Transition Elements	87	(1)
Essential Elements	88	(8)
Chapter Goals Revisited	89	(1)
Key Equations	89	(1)
Study Questions	90	(6)
Molecules, Ions, and Their Compounds	96	(44)
DNA: The Most Important Molecule	96	(2)
Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas	98	(2)
Formulas	99	(1)
Molecular Models	100	(3)
A Closer Look: Computer Resources for Molecular Modeling	102	(1)
Ionic Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties	103	(11)
Ions	104	(3)
Formulas of Ionic Compounds	107	(2)
Names of Ions	109	(2)
Names of Ionic Compounds	111	(1)
Properties of Ionic Compounds	111	(3)
Molecular Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties	114	(2)
Formulas, Compounds, and the Mole	116	(3)
Describing Compound Formulas	119	(9)
Percent Composition	119	(2)
Empirical and Molecular Formulas from Percent Composition	121	(6)
A Closer Look: Mass Spectrometry, Molar Mass, and Isotopes	127	(1)
Hydrated Compounds	128	(12)
Chapter Goals Revisited	130	(1)
Key Equations	131	(1)
Study Questions	132	(8)
Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry	140	(34)
Black Smokers and the Origin of Life	140	(2)
Chemical Equations	142	(3)
Historical Perspectives: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743--1794)	143	(2)
Balancing Chemical Equations	145	(3)
Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry	148	(4)
Reactions in Which One Reactant Is Present in Limited Supply	152	(5)
A Stoichiometry Calculation with a Limiting Reactant	153	(4)
Percent Yield	157	(1)
Chemical Equations and Chemical Analysis	158	(16)
Quantitative Analysis of a Mixture	158	(4)
Determining the Formula of a Compound by Combustion	162	(3)
Chapter Goals Revisited	165	(1)
Key Equation	165	(1)
Study Questions	166	(8)
Reactions in Aqueous Solution	174	(58)
Salt	174	(2)
Properties of Compounds in Aqueous Solution	176	(5)
Ions in Aqueous Solution: Electrolytes	176	(1)
Types of Electrolytes	177	(2)
Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water	179	(2)
Precipitation Reactions	181	(4)
Net Ionic Equations	183	(2)
Acids and Bases	185	(6)
Acids	185	(2)
Chemical Perspectives: Sulfuric Acid	187	(1)
A Closer Look: The H+ Ion in Water	188	(1)
Bases	188	(1)
Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals	189	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Limelight and Metal Oxides	190	(1)
Reactions of Acids and Bases	191	(3)
Gas-Forming Reactions	194	(1)
Classifying Reactions in Aqueous Solution	195	(2)
A Summary of Common Reaction Types in Aqueous Solution	196	(1)
A Closer Look: Product-Favored and Reactant-Favored Reactions	197	(1)
Oxidation--Reduction Reactions	197	(8)
Redox Reactions and Electron Transfer	198	(2)
Oxidation Numbers	200	(1)
A Closer Look: Are Oxidation Numbers ``Real''?	201	(1)
Recognizing Oxidation--Reduction Reactions	202	(3)
Measuring Concentrations of Compounds in Solution	205	(7)
Solution Concentration: Molarity	205	(4)
Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration	209	(3)
pH, a Concentration Scale for Acids and Bases	212	(2)
Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution	214	(18)
General Solution Stoichiometry	214	(2)
Titration: A Method of Chemical Analysis	216	(5)
Chapter Goals Revisited	221	(2)
Key Equations	223	(1)
Study Questions	223	(9)
Principles of Reactivity: Energy and Chemical Reactions	232	(62)
Abba's Refrigerator	232	(4)
Energy: Some Basic Principles	236	(5)
Conservation of Energy	236	(1)
Temperature and Heat	237	(1)
Systems and Surroundings	238	(1)
Directionality of Heat Transfer: Thermal Equilibrium	238	(1)
A Closer Look: Why Doesn't the Heat in a Room Cause Your Cup of Coffee to Boil?	239	(1)
Energy Units	240	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Food and Calories	241	(1)
Specific Heat Capacity and Heat Transfer	241	(5)
A Closer Look: Sign Conventions	243	(1)
Quantitative Aspects of Heat Transfer	244	(2)
Energy and Changes of State	246	(4)
The First Law of Thermodynamics	250	(4)
Historical Perspectives: Work, Heat, Cannons, Soup, and Beer	251	(1)
A Closer Look: P-V Work	252	(1)
Enthalpy	253	(1)
State Functions	254	(1)
Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions	254	(3)
Calorimetry	257	(4)
Constant Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔH	257	(2)
Constant Volume Calorimetry: Measuring ΔE	259	(2)
Hess's Law	261	(4)
Energy Level Diagrams	262	(3)
Standard Enthalpies of Formation	265	(4)
Enthalpy Change for a Reaction	267	(1)
A Closer Look: Hess's Law and Equation 6.6	268	(1)
Product-or Reactant-Favored Reactions and Thermochemistry	269	(25)
Chapter Goals Revisited	270	(1)
Key Equations	271	(1)
Study Questions	272	(10)
The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy Sources	282	(1)
Supply and Demand: The Balance Sheet on Energy	283	(1)
Energy Consumption	283	(1)
Energy Resources	284	(1)
Fossil Fuels	284	(1)
Coal	285	(1)
Natural Gas	286	(1)
Petroleum	286	(1)
Other Fossil Fuel Sources	287	(1)
Energy in the Future: Choices and Alternatives	288	(1)
Fuel Cells	288	(1)
A Hydrogen Economy	289	(2)
Biosources of Energy	291	(1)
Solar Energy	292	(1)
What Does the Future Hold for Energy?	292	(1)
Suggested Readings	292	(1)
Study Questions	293	(1)
Part 2 The Structure of Atoms and Molecules
Atomic Structure	294	(38)
Colors in the Sky	294	(2)
Electromagnetic Radiation	296	(4)
Wave Properties	296	(2)
Standing Waves	298	(1)
The Visible Spectrum of Light	299	(1)
Planck, Einstein, Energy, and Photons	300	(5)
Planck's Equation	300	(2)
Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect	302	(2)
Energy and Chemistry: Using Planck's Equation	304	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: UV Radiation, Skin Damage, and Sunscreens	305	(1)
Atomic Line Spectra and Niels Bohr	305	(8)
Atomic Line Spectra	305	(2)
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom	307	(2)
The Bohr Theory and the Spectra of Excited Atoms	309	(4)
A Closer Look: Experimental Evidence for Bohr's Theory	313	(1)
The Wave Properties of the Electron	313	(1)
Quantum Mechanical View of the Atom	314	(6)
Historical Perspectives: 20th-Century Giants of Science	315	(1)
The Uncertainty Principle	315	(1)
Schrodinger's Model of the Hydrogen Atom and Wave Functions	316	(1)
Quantum Numbers	316	(2)
Useful Information from Quantum Numbers	318	(2)
The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals	320	(3)
s Orbitals	320	(1)
p Orbitals	321	(2)
d Orbitals	323	(1)
f Orbitals	323	(1)
Atomic Orbitals and Chemistry	323	(9)
Chapter Goals Revisited	324	(1)
Key Equations	325	(1)
Study Questions	326	(6)
Atomic Electron Configurations and Chemical Periodicity	332	(40)
Everything in Its Place	332	(2)
Electron Spin	334	(4)
Magnetism	334	(1)
Paramagnetism and Unpaired Electrons	335	(1)
A Closer Look: Paramagnetism and Ferromagnetism	336	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Quantized Spins and MRI	337	(1)
The Pauli Exclusion Principle	338	(1)
Atomic Subshell Energies and Electron Assignments	339	(4)
Order of Subshell Energies and Assignments	339	(2)
Effective Nuclear Charge, Z*	341	(2)
Atomic Electron Configurations	343	(8)
Electron Configurations of the Main Group Elements	343	(6)
Electron Configurations of the Transition Elements	349	(2)
Electron Configurations of Ions	351	(2)
Atomic Properties and Periodic Trends	353	(10)
Atomic Size	353	(4)
Ionization Energy	357	(2)
Electron Affinity	359	(2)
Ion Sizes	361	(2)
Periodic Trends and Chemical Properties	363	(9)
Chapter Goals Revisited	365	(1)
Study Questions	366	(6)
Bonding and Molecular Structure: Fundamental Concepts	372	(64)
Molecules in Space	372	(2)
Valence Electrons	374	(2)
Lewis Symbols for Atoms	375	(1)
Chemical Bond Formation	376	(1)
Bonding in Ionic Compounds	377	(5)
Ion Attraction and Lattice Energy	378	(3)
Why Don't Compounds Such as NaCl2 and NaNe Exist?	381	(1)
Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures	382	(8)
Lewis Electron Dot Structures	382	(1)
The Octet Rule	383	(3)
Predicting Lewis Structures	386	(4)
Resonance	390	(2)
A Closer Look: Resonance Structures, Lewis Structures, and Molecular Models	391	(1)
Exceptions to the Octet Rule	392	(5)
Compounds in Which an Atom Has Fewer Than Eight Valence Electrons	393	(1)
Compounds in Which an Atom Has More Than Eight Valence Electrons	393	(3)
Chemical Perspectives: The Importance of Odd-Electron Molecules	396	(1)
Molecular Shapes	397	(8)
Central Atoms Surrounded Only by Single-Bound Pairs	398	(1)
Central Atoms with Single-Bond Pairs and Lone Pairs	399	(2)
Central Atoms with More Than Four Valence Electron Pairs	401	(2)
Multiple Bonds and Molecular Geometry	403	(2)
Charge Distribution in Covalent Bonds and Molecules	405	(8)
Formal Charges on Atoms	405	(2)
A Closer Look: Formal Charge and Oxidation Number	407	(1)
Bond Polarity and Electronegativity	408	(2)
A Closer Look: Electronegativity	410	(1)
Combining Formal Charge and Bond Polarity	411	(2)
Molecular Polarity	413	(6)
Historical Perspectives: Developing Concepts of Bonding and Structure	415	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Cooking with Microwaves	416	(3)
Bond Properties: Order, Length, and Energy	419	(5)
Bond Order	419	(1)
Bond Length	419	(2)
Bond Energy	421	(3)
The DNA Story---Revisited	424	(12)
Chapter Goals Revisited	425	(2)
Key Equations	427	(1)
Study Questions	427	(9)
Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals	436	(38)
Linus Pauling: A Life of Chemical Thought	436	(2)
Orbitals and Bonding Theories	438	(1)
Valence Bond Theory	439	(18)
Orbital Overlap Model of Bonding	439	(2)
Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals	441	(9)
Multiple Bonds	450	(4)
Cis-Trans Isomerism: A Consequence of π Bonding	454	(1)
Benzene: A Special Case of π Bonding	455	(2)
Molecular Orbital Theory	457	(17)
Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory	457	(2)
Bond Order	459	(1)
Molecular Orbitals of Li2 and Be2	460	(1)
Molecular Orbitals from Atomic p Orbitals	461	(1)
Electron Configurations for Homonuclear Molecules for Boron Through Fluorine	462	(2)
A Closer Look: Molecular Orbitals for Compounds Formed from p-Block Elements	464	(1)
Electron Configurations for Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules	465	(1)
Resonance and MO Theory	465	(2)
Chapter Goals Revisited	467	(1)
Key Equations	467	(1)
Study Questions	468	(6)
Carbon: More Than Just Another Element	474	(72)
A Colorful Beginning	474	(2)
Why Carbon?	476	(5)
Structural Diversity	476	(1)
Isomers	477	(1)
A Closer Look: Writing Formulas and Drawing Structures	478	(2)
A Closer Look: Optical Isomers and Chirality	480	(1)
Stability of Carbon Compounds	480	(1)
Hydrocarbons	481	(15)
Alkanes	481	(6)
A Closer Look: Flexible Molecules	487	(1)
Alkenes and Alkynes	487	(5)
Aromatic Compounds	492	(3)
A Closer Look: Petroleum Chemistry	495	(1)
Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines	496	(6)
Alcohols and Ethers	497	(2)
Properties of Alcohols and Ethers	499	(1)
Amines	500	(2)
Compounds with a Carbonyl Group	502	(10)
Aldehydes and Ketones	503	(1)
Carboxylic Acids	504	(2)
A Closer Look: Glucose and Sugars	506	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Aspirin Is More Than 100 Years Old!	507	(1)
Esters	507	(2)
Amides	509	(1)
A Closer Look: Fats and Oils	510	(2)
Polymers	512	(34)
Classifying Polymers	512	(1)
Addition Polymers	513	(4)
Condensation Polymers	517	(3)
Chemical Perspectives: Super Diapers	520	(1)
Chapter Goals Revisited	520	(2)
Study Questions	522	(8)
The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry	530	(1)
Proteins	531	(1)
Amino Acids Are the Building Blocks of Proteins	531	(2)
Protein Structure and Hemoglobin	533	(1)
Sickle Cell Anemia	533	(2)
Enzymes, Active Sites, and Lysozyme	535	(2)
Nucleic Acids	537	(1)
Nucleic Acid Structure	537	(1)
Protein Synthesis	538	(2)
The RNA World and the Origin of Life	540	(1)
Metabolism	541	(1)
Energy and ATP	541	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: AIDS and Reverse Transcriptase	542	(1)
Oxidation--Reduction and NADH	543	(1)
Respiration and Photosynthesis	543	(1)
Concluding Remarks	544	(1)
Suggested Readings	544	(1)
Study Questions	544	(2)
Part 3 States of Matter
Gases and Their Properties	546	(42)
Up, Up, and Away!	546	(2)
The Properties of Gases	548	(2)
Gas Pressure	548	(2)
A Closer Look: Measuring Gas Pressure	550	(1)
Gas Laws: The Experimental Basis	550	(7)
The Compressibility of Gases: Boyle's Law	550	(2)
The Effect of Temperature on Gas Volume: Charles's Law	552	(2)
Combining Boyle's and Charles's Laws: The General Gas Law	554	(2)
Avogadro's Hypothesis	556	(1)
The Ideal Gas Law	557	(4)
The Density of Gases	559	(1)
Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas from P, V, and T Data	560	(1)
Gas Laws and Chemical Reactions	561	(3)
Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures	564	(3)
Historical Perspectives: Studies on Gases	567	(1)
The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases	567	(4)
Molecular Speed and Kinetic Energy	567	(3)
Kinetic-Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws	570	(1)
Diffusion and Effusion	571	(2)
Some Applications of the Gas Laws and Kinetic-Molecular Theory	573	(2)
Separating Isotopes	573	(1)
Deep Sea Diving	574	(1)
Nonideal Behavior: Real Gases	575	(13)
Chemical Perspectives: The Earth's Atmosphere	577	(1)
Chapter Goals Revisited	578	(1)
Key Equations	579	(1)
Study Questions	580	(8)
Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids	588	(68)
The Mystery of the Disappearing Fingerprints	588	(2)
States of Matter and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory	590	(1)
Intermolecular Forces	591	(8)
Interactions Between Ions and Molecules with a Permanent Dipole	592	(2)
Interactions Between Molecules with Permanent Dipoles	594	(1)
A Closer Look: Hydrated Salts	595	(1)
Interactions Involving Nonpolar Molecules	596	(3)
Hydrogen Bonding	599	(5)
Hydrogen Bonding and the Unusual Properties of Water	602	(2)
Summary of Intermolecular Forces	604	(2)
Properties of Liquids	606	(10)
Vaporization	606	(3)
Vapor Pressure	609	(4)
Boiling Point	613	(1)
Critical Temperature and Pressure	613	(1)
Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity	614	(2)
The Solid State: Metals	616	(6)
Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells	617	(4)
A Closer Look: Packing Oranges	621	(1)
The Solid State: Structures and Formulas of Ionic Solids	622	(3)
Other Kinds of Solid Materials	625	(2)
Molecular Solids	625	(1)
Network Solids	625	(1)
Amorphous Solids	626	(1)
The Physical Properties of Solids	627	(3)
Melting: Conversion of Solid to Liquid	627	(1)
Sublimation: Conversion of Solid to Vapor	628	(2)
Phase Diagrams	630	(26)
Water	630	(1)
Carbon Dioxide	631	(2)
Chapter Goals Revisited	633	(1)
Key Equation	634	(1)
Study Questions	634	(8)
The Chemistry of Modern Materials	642	(1)
Metals	643	(1)
Bonding in Metals	643	(1)
Alloys: Mixtures of Metals	644	(1)
Semiconductors	645	(1)
Bonding in Semiconductors: The Band Gap	646	(1)
Applications of Semiconductors: Diodes, LEDs, and Transistors	647	(1)
Microfabrication Techniques Using Semiconductor Materials	648	(1)
Ceramics	649	(1)
Glass: A Disordered Ceramic	650	(1)
Fired Ceramics for Special Purposes: Cements, Clays, and Refractories	651	(1)
Modern Ceramics with Exceptional Properties	652	(1)
Biomaterials: Learning from Nature	653	(1)
The Future of Materials	654	(1)
Suggested Readings	655	(1)
Study Questions	655	(1)
Solutions and Their Behavior	656	(42)
The Killer Lakes of Cameroon	656	(3)
Units of Concentration	659	(3)
The Solution Process	662	(7)
Liquids Dissolving in Liquids	662	(1)
A Closer Look: Supersaturated Solutions	663	(1)
Solids Dissolving in Water	664	(2)
Heat of Solution	666	(3)
Factors Affecting Solubility: Pressure and Temperature	669	(3)
Dissolving Gases in Liquids: Henry's Law	669	(3)
Colligative Properties	672	(14)
Changes in Vapor Pressure: Raoult's Law	672	(2)
Boiling Point Elevation	674	(3)
Freezing Point Depression	677	(1)
Colligative Properties and Molar Mass Determination	678	(1)
Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing Ions	679	(2)
Osmosis	681	(4)
A Closer Look: Reverse Osmosis in Tampa Bay	685	(1)
Colloids	686	(12)
Types of Colloids	687	(1)
Surfactants	688	(2)
Chapter Goals Revisited	690	(1)
Key Equations	691	(1)
Study Questions	692	(6)
Part 4 The Control of Chemical Reactions
Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Kinetics	698	(58)
Faster and Faster	698	(2)
Rates of Chemical Reactions	700	(4)
Reaction Conditions and Rate	704	(2)
Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate	706	(6)
Rate Equations	707	(1)
The Order of a Reaction	707	(2)
The Rate Constant, k	709	(1)
Determining a Rate Equation	709	(3)
Concentration---Time Relationships: Integrated Rate Laws	712	(10)
First-Order Reactions	713	(2)
Second-Order Reactions	715	(1)
Zero-Order Reactions	716	(1)
Graphical Methods for Determining Reaction Order and the Rate Constant	716	(3)
Half-Life and First-Order Reactions	719	(3)
A Microscopic View of Reaction Rates	722	(10)
Concentration, Reaction Rate, and Collision Theory	722	(1)
Temperature, Reaction Rate, and Activation Energy	723	(3)
A Closer Look: Reaction Coordinate Diagrams	726	(1)
Effect of Molecular Orientation on Reaction Rate	726	(1)
The Arrhenius Equation	727	(2)
Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate	729	(3)
A Closer Look: Enzymes: Nature's Catalysts	732	(1)
Reaction Mechanisms	732	(24)
Molecularity of Elementary Steps	733	(1)
Rate Equations for Elementary Steps	734	(1)
Molecularity and Reaction Order	734	(2)
Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Equations	736	(5)
Chapter Goals Revisited	741	(2)
Key Equations	743	(1)
Study Questions	744	(12)
Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Equilibria	756	(40)
Fertilizer and Poison Gas	756	(2)
The Nature of the Equilibrium State	758	(2)
The Equilibrium Constant and Reaction Quotient	760	(10)
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions	763	(1)
A Closer Look: Equilibrium Constant Expressions for Gases---Kc and Kp	764	(1)
The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant, K	765	(2)
The Reaction Quotient, Q	767	(3)
Determining an Equilibrium Constant	770	(2)
Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations	772	(5)
Calculations Where the Solution Involves a Quadratic Expression	774	(3)
More About Balanced Equations and Equilibrium Constants	777	(4)
Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium	781	(6)
Effect of Temperature Changes on Equilibrium Composition	781	(2)
Effect of the Addition or Removal of a Reactant or Product	783	(2)
Effect of Volume Changes on Gas-Phase Equilibria	785	(2)
Applying the Principles of Chemical Equilibrium	787	(9)
The Haber-Bosch Process	787	(1)
Chapter Goals Revisited	788	(1)
Key Equations	789	(1)
Study Questions	789	(7)
Principles of Reactivity: The Chemistry of Acids and Bases	796	(52)
Nature's Acids	796	(2)
Acids, Bases, and the Equilibrium Concept	798	(1)
The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases	799	(3)
Conjugate Acid--Base Pairs	802	(1)
Water and the pH Scale	802	(4)
Water Autoionization and the Water Ionization Constant, Kw	803	(2)
The pH Scale	805	(1)
Determining and Calculating pH	806	(1)
Equilibrium Constants for Acids and Bases	806	(8)
Aqueous Solutions of Salts	810	(2)
A Logarithmic Scale of Relative Acid Strength, pKa	812	(1)
Relating the Ionization Constants for an Acid and Its Conjugate Base	813	(1)
Equilibrium Constants and Acid--Base Reactions	814	(2)
Predicting the Direction of Acid--Base Reactions	814	(2)
Types of Acid--Base Reactions	816	(2)
The Reaction of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base	816	(1)
The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base	817	(1)
The Reaction of Strong Acid with a Weak Base	817	(1)
The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Weak Base	818	(1)
Calculations with Equilibrium Constants	818	(8)
Determining K from Initial Concentrations and Measured pH	818	(2)
What Is the pH of an Aqueous Solution of a Weak Acid or Base?	820	(4)
What Is the pH of a Solution After an Acid-Base Reaction?	824	(2)
Polyprotic Acids and Bases	826	(2)
The Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases	828	(4)
Cationic Lewis Acids	829	(1)
Molecular Lewis Acids	830	(2)
Molecular Structure, Bonding, and Acid--Base Behavior	832	(16)
Why Is HF a Weak Acid Whereas HCl Is a Strong Acid?	832	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Lewis and Brønslted Bases: Adrenaline and Serotonin	833	(1)
Why Is HNO2, a Weak Acid Whereas HNO3 Is a Strong Acid?	833	(2)
Why Are Carboxylic Acids Brønsted Acids?	835	(1)
Why Are Hydrated Metal Cations Brønsted Acids?	836	(1)
Why Are Anions Brønsted Bases?	836	(1)
Why Are Organic Amines Brønsted and Lewis Bases?	836	(1)
Chapter Goals Revisited	837	(1)
Key Equations	838	(1)
Study Questions	839	(9)
Principles of Reactivity: Other Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria	848	(54)
Roses Are Red, Violets Are Blue, and Hydrangeas Are Red or Blue	848	(2)
The Common Ion Effect	850	(4)
Controlling pH: Buffer Solutions	854	(7)
General Expressions for Buffer Solutions	856	(1)
Preparing Buffer Solutions	857	(3)
How Does a Buffer Maintain pH?	860	(1)
Acid--Base Titrations	861	(12)
Current Perspectives: Buffers in Biochemistry	862	(1)
Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base	862	(2)
Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base	864	(3)
Titration of Weak Polyprotic Acids	867	(1)
Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid	868	(2)
pH Indicators	870	(3)
Solubility of Salts	873	(11)
The Solubility Product Constant, Ksp	873	(2)
Relating Solubility and Ksp	875	(2)
A Closer Look: Solubility Calculations	877	(2)
Solubility and the Common Ion Effect	879	(3)
The Effect of Basic Anions on Salt Solubility	882	(2)
Precipitation Reactions	884	(3)
Ksp and the Reaction Quotient, Q	884	(1)
Ksp, the Reaction Quotient, and Precipitation Reactions	885	(2)
Solubility and Complex Ions	887	(3)
Solubility, Ion Separations, and Qualitative Analysis	890	(12)
Chapter Goals Revisited	892	(1)
Key Equations	893	(1)
Study Questions	894	(8)
Principles of Reactivity: Entropy and Free Energy	902	(40)
Perpetual Motion Machines	902	(2)
Spontaneous Change and Equilibrium	904	(1)
Heat and Spontaneity	904	(2)
Dispersal of Energy and Matter	906	(6)
Dispersal of Energy	906	(1)
Dispersal of Matter	907	(2)
Applications of the Dispersal of Matter	909	(2)
The Boltzmann Equation for Entropy	911	(1)
A Summary: Matter and Energy Dispersal	911	(1)
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics	912	(5)
A Closer Look: Reversible and Irreversible Processes	914	(1)
Entropy Changes in Physical and Chemical Processes	915	(2)
Entropy Changes and Spontaneity	917	(4)
Calculating ΔS°sys, the Entropy Change for the System	918	(1)
Calculating ΔS°surr, the Entropy Change for the Surroundings	918	(1)
Calculating ΔS°univ, the Total Entropy Change for the System and Surroundings	918	(1)
In Summary: Spontaneous or Not?	919	(2)
Gibbs Free Energy	921	(7)
ΔG® and Spontaneity	922	(1)
What Is ``Free'' Energy?	922	(1)
Calculating ΔG®rxn, the Free Energy Change for a Reaction	923	(1)
Standard Free Energy of Formation	924	(1)
Free Energy and Temperature	925	(3)
ΔG°, K, and Product Favorablility	928	(3)
Free Energy, the Reaction Quotient, and the Equilibrium Constant	929	(1)
Using the Relationship Between ΔG°rxn and K	930	(1)
Thermodynamics, Time, and Life	931	(11)
Chemical Perspectives: Thermodynamics and Speculation on the Origin of Life	932	(1)
Chapter Goals Revisited	933	(1)
Key Equations	934	(1)
Study Questions	934	(8)
Principles of Reactivity: Electron Transfer Reactions	942	(70)
Blood Gases	942	(3)
Oxidation--Reduction Reactions	945	(7)
Balancing Oxidation--Reduction Equations	946	(6)
Simple Voltaic Cells	952	(5)
Voltaic Cells with Inert Electrodes	955	(1)
Electrochemical Cell Conventions	956	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Frogs and Voltaic Piles	957	(1)
Commercial Voltaic Cells	957	(5)
Primary Batteries: Dry Cells and Alkaline Batteries	958	(1)
Secondary or Rechargeable Batteries	959	(1)
Fuel Cells	960	(2)
Chemical Perspectives: Your Next Car?	962	(1)
Standard Electrochemical Potentials	962	(12)
Electromotive Force	963	(1)
Measuring Standard Potentials	963	(2)
A Closer Look: EMF, Cell Potential, and Voltage	965	(1)
Standard Reduction Potentials	965	(2)
Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials	967	(2)
Using Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials	969	(4)
Chemical Perspectives: An Electrochemical Toothache!	973	(1)
Electrochemical Cells Under Nonstandard Conditions	974	(4)
The Nernst Equation	975	(3)
Electrochemistry and Thermodynamics	978	(3)
Work and Free Energy	978	(1)
E° and the Equilibrium Constant	979	(2)
Historical Perspectives: Electrochemistry and Michael Faraday	981	(1)
Electrolysis: Chemical Change Using Electrical Energy	981	(5)
Electrolysis of Molten Salts	982	(1)
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions	983	(3)
Counting Electrons	986	(26)
Chapter Goals Revisited	989	(1)
Key Equations	990	(1)
Study Questions	990	(8)
The Chemistry of the Environment	998	(1)
Water, Water, Everywhere	999	(1)
Removing Suspended Particles from Water	1000	(1)
Hard Water	1001	(2)
Filtration	1003	(1)
Disinfection of Water	1003	(1)
Air: Now You See It, Now You Don't	1004	(1)
Composition of the Atmosphere	1004	(1)
Particulates	1004	(1)
The PM Index	1005	(1)
Particulates and Visibility	1005	(1)
Particulate Air Pollution	1006	(1)
Green Chemistry	1007	(1)
DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane	1007	(1)
CFCs: Chlorofluorocarbons	1008	(2)
Regulating Pollutants	1010	(1)
Reducing Pollutants through Green Chemistry	1010	(1)
For More Information	1011	(1)
Study Questions	1011	(1)
Part 5 The Chemistry of the Elements
The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements	1012	(56)
Sulfur Chemistry and Life on the Edge	1012	(2)
Element Abundances	1014	(1)
The Periodic Table: A Guide to the Elements	1015	(4)
Valence Electrons	1015	(1)
Ionic Compounds of Main Group Elements	1015	(2)
Molecular Compounds of Main Group Elements	1017	(2)
Hydrogen	1019	(3)
Chemical and Physical Properties of Hydrogen	1019	(1)
A Closer Look: Hydrogen, Helium, and Balloons	1020	(1)
Preparation of Hydrogen	1021	(1)
The Alkali Metals, Group 1A	1022	(5)
Preparation of Sodium and Potassium	1023	(1)
Properties of Sodium and Potassium	1024	(1)
A Closer Look: The Reducing Ability of the Alkali Metals	1025	(1)
Important Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium Compounds	1025	(2)
The Alkaline Earth Elements, Group 2A	1027	(5)
Properties of Calcium and Magnesium	1028	(1)
Metallurgy of Magnesium	1028	(1)
Calcium Minerals and Their Applications	1029	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Alkaline Earth Metals and Biology	1030	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Of Romans, Limestone, and Champagne	1031	(1)
Boron, Aluminum, and the Group 3A Elements	1032	(6)
The General Chemistry of the Group 3A Elements	1032	(1)
Boron Minerals and Production of the Element	1032	(1)
Metallic Aluminum and Its Production	1033	(1)
Boron Compounds	1034	(3)
Aluminum Compounds	1037	(1)
Silicon and the Group 4A Elements	1038	(5)
Silicon	1038	(1)
Silicon Dioxide	1039	(1)
Silicate Minerals with Chain and Ribbon Structures	1040	(1)
Silicates with Sheet Structures and Aluminosilicates	1041	(1)
Silicone Polymers	1042	(1)
Chemical Perspectives: Lead Pollution, Old and New	1043	(1)
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and the Group 5A Elements	1043	(9)
Properties of Nitrogen and Phosphorus	1044	(1)
A Closer Look: Making Phosphorus	1045	(1)
Nitrogen Compounds	1045	(3)
Hydrogen Compounds of Phosphorus and Other Group 5A Elements	1048	(1)
Phosphorus Oxides and Sulfides	1048	(2)
Phosphorus Oxoacids and Their Salts	1050	(2)
Oxygen, Sulfur, and the Group 6A Elements	1052	(3)
Preparation and Properties of the Elements	1052	(2)
Sulfur Compounds	1054	(1)
The Halogens, Group 7A	1055	(13)
Preparation of the Elements	1055	(3)
Fluorine Compounds	1058	(1)
Chlorine Compounds	1059	(2)
Chapter Goals Revisited	1061	(1)
Study Questions	1061	(7)
The Chemistry of the Transition Elements	1068	(40)
Memory Metal	1068	(2)
Properties of the Transition Elements	1070	(6)
Electron Configurations	1072	(1)
Oxidation and Reduction	1072	(2)
Chemical Perspectives: Corrosion of Iron	1074	(1)
Periodic Trends in the d-Block: Size, Density, Melting Point	1075	(1)
Metallurgy	1076	(4)
Pyrometallurgy: Iron Production	1077	(2)
Hydrometallurgy: Copper Production	1079	(1)
Coordination Compounds	1080	(7)
Complexes and Ligands	1080	(3)
Formulas of Coordination Compounds	1083	(1)
A Closer Look: Hemoglobin	1084	(2)
Naming Coordination Compounds	1086	(1)
Structures of Coordination Compounds	1087	(5)
Common Coordination Geometries	1087	(1)
Isomerism	1088	(4)
Bonding in Coordination Compounds	1092	(5)
The d Orbitals: Ligand Field Theory	1092	(2)
Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties	1094	(3)
Colors of Coordination Compounds	1097	(11)
Color	1097	(1)
The Spectrochemical Series	1098	(2)
A Closer Look: A Spectrophotometer	1100	(2)
Chapter Goals Revisited	1102	(1)
Study Questions	1103	(5)
Nuclear Chemistry	1108
Nuclear Medicine	1108	(2)
Natural Radioactivity	1110	(1)
Nuclear Reactions and Radioactive Decay	1111	(5)
Equations for Nuclear Reactions	1111	(2)
Radioactive Decay Series	1113	(2)
Other Types of Radioactive Decay	1115	(1)
Stability of Atomic Nuclei	1116	(6)
The Band of Stability and Radioactive Decay	1117	(2)
Nuclear Binding Energy	1119	(3)
Rates of Nuclear Decay	1122	(5)
Half-Life	1122	(1)
Kinetics of Nuclear Decay	1123	(2)
Radiocarbon Dating	1125	(2)
Artificial Nuclear Reactions	1127	(3)
A Closer Look: The Search for New Elements	1129	(1)
Nuclear Fission	1130	(2)
Nuclear Fusion	1132	(1)
Radiation Health and Safety	1132	(3)
Units for Measuring Radiation	1132	(1)
Radiation: Doses and Effects	1133	(1)
A Closer Look: What Is a Safe Exposure?	1134	(1)
Applications of Nuclear Chemistry	1135
Nuclear Medicine: Medical Imaging	1135	(1)
Nuclear Medicine: Radiation Therapy	1136	(1)
Analytical Methods: The Use of Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers	1136	(1)
A Closer Look: Technetium-99m	1137	(1)
Analytical Methods: Isotope Dilution	1137	(1)
Space Science: Neutron Activation Analysis and the Moon Rocks	1138	(1)
Food Science: Food Irradiation	1138	(1)
Chapter Goals Revisited	1139	(1)
Key Equations	1140	(1)
Study Questions	1141
Appendices	1	(1)
A Using Logarithms and the Quadratic Equation	2	(5)
B Some Important Physical Concepts	7	(3)
C Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors	10	(4)
D Physical Constants	14	(2)
E Naming Organic Compounds	16	(3)
F Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron Affinities of the Elements	19	(1)
G Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures	20	(1)
H Ionization Constants for Weak Acids at 25 °C	21	(2)
I Ionization Constants for Weak Bases at 25 °C	23	(1)
J Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25 °C	24	(2)
K Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in Aqueous Solution	26	(1)
L Selected Thermodynamic Values	27	(6)
M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25 °C	33	(3)
N Answers to Exercises	36	(1)
O Answers to Selected Study Questions	36	(71)
P Answers to Selected Interchapter Study Questions	107
Glossary/Index	1