Cognitive Psychology

by Medin, Douglas L.; Ross, Brian H.

• ISBN13: 9780155028432
• ISBN10: 015502843X
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1999-06-01
• Publisher: HARCOURT BRACE & JOVANOVICH

Table of Contents

PART I OVERVIEW	1	(52)
1 Possibilities, Information, and Experience	3	(18)
Introduction	4	(7)
Puzzles	4	(3)
Possibilities	7	(1)
A Closer Look	8	(2)
Themes and Implications	10	(1)
Experience and Learning	11	(8)
Experience and Explanations	11	(2)
Ways of Knowing	13	(5)
Experimentation	18	(1)
Summary	19	(1)
Key Terms	20	(1)
Recommended Readings	20	(1)
2 Approaches to the Study of the Mind	21	(32)
Roots of Cognitive Psychology	23	(7)
Introspectionism	23	(1)
Behaviorism	23	(1)
Critique of Behaviorism	24	(2)
Cognitive Psychology	26	(4)
The Emergence of Cognitive Science	30	(2)
Background	30	(2)
Cognitive Science	32	(1)
Cognitive Neuroscience Techniques	32	(2)
Event-Related Potentials	32	(1)
Positron Emission Tomography	33	(1)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging	33	(1)
Summary	33	(1)
Levels of Analysis	34	(5)
Marr's Three Levels	35	(2)
Recursive Decomposition	37	(2)
Diversity of Approaches	39	(8)
Degree of Formalism--From Frameworks to Mathematical Models	39	(1)
Simplicity Versus Sufficiency--Al and Computer Simulation Models	40	(2)
Explicit Versus Implicit Structure--Connectionist Models	42	(1)
The Stroop Effect	43	(4)
Summary	47	(1)
Ecological Validity	47	(4)
Summary	51	(1)
Key Terms	51	(1)
Recommended Readings	52	(1)
PART II ACQUIRING INFORMATION	53	(102)
3 Learning	55	(32)
Introduction	56	(1)
Two Faces of Learning	57	(1)
The Biological Backdrop of Learning	58	(6)
Fixed Action Patterns and Releasers	58	(2)
Critical Periods and Imprinting	60	(2)
Constraints on Learning	62	(2)
Summary	64	(1)
Basic Learning	64	(12)
Habituation	64	(2)
Classical Conditioning	66	(5)
Trial-and-Error Learning or Instrumental Learning	71	(3)
Paired-Associate Learning	74	(2)
Implications	76	(8)
The Learning-Performance Distinction	77	(1)
Contingency Learning and Illusory Correlation	78	(5)
Meaningful Learning	83	(1)
Summary	84	(1)
Key Terms	85	(1)
Recommended Readings	85	(2)
4 Attention	87	(27)
Introduction	88	(2)
Some Initial Observations	90	(6)
Sensory Stores	90	(5)
Focused Attention	95	(1)
Capacity and Attention	96	(9)
Bottleneck Theories	96	(2)
Late Selection	98	(1)
Capacity Theories	99	(2)
Capacity and Automaticity	101	(4)
Attention and Action	105	(5)
Dual-Task Interference	105	(1)
Spatial Selection Versus Object Selection	106	(2)
Selection and Negative Priming	108	(1)
Summary	109	(1)
Integration of Information: Feature Integration Theory	110	(2)
Summary	112	(1)
Key Terms	112	(1)
Recommended Readings	112	(2)
5 Perception	114	(41)
The Problem of Perception	115	(1)
The Constraints Perspective	116	(2)
Edge Detection	117	(1)
Localization	118	(9)
Segregation	118	(5)
Distance	123	(3)
Motion	126	(1)
Summary	127	(1)
From Features to Structure	127	(12)
Feature Detection Theories	128	(2)
Structural Theories	130	(4)
Template Matching and Alignment	134	(2)
Global to Local Processing	136	(2)
Face Recognition and Visual Subsystems	138	(1)
Summary	139	(1)
Levels and the Integration of Information In Perception	139	(4)
Context Effects	139	(1)
The Word Superiority Effect	140	(3)
Summary	143	(1)
Speech Production and Perception	143	(9)
Structure	144	(6)
Speech Perception	150	(2)
Summary	152	(1)
Key Terms	153	(1)
Recommended Readings	153	(2)
PART III MEMORY	155	(162)
6 Spatial Knowledge, Imagery, and Visual Memory	157	(28)
Introduction	158	(1)
Representations	159	(5)
Relations Between Representations and Referents	159	(1)
Analog Representations	160	(4)
Spatial Knowledge	164	(7)
Maps and Navigation	164	(2)
Spatial Representations and Development	166	(2)
Hierarchical Representations of Space	168	(1)
The Brain and Spatial Cognition	169	(2)
Imagery	171	(9)
Evidence for Use of Visual Imagery	172	(4)
Representation of Images	176	(4)
Visual Memory	180	(3)
Remembering Details	180	(1)
Memory for Pictures	181	(1)
The Picture-Superiority Effect	181	(1)
Face Recognition	182	(1)
Mnemonics	182	(1)
Summary	183	(1)
Key Terms	184	(1)
Recommended Readings	184	(1)
7 Memory: Remembering New Information	185	(42)
Introduction	186	(2)
Centrality of Memory	186	(1)
Uses of Memory	187	(1)
Short-Term Memory	188	(10)
Introduction	188	(1)
Characteristics of Short-Term Memory	189	(4)
Working Memory	193	(5)
Long-Term Memory	198	(19)
Introduction	198	(2)
Encoding	200	(4)
Retrieval	204	(2)
Encoding-Retrieval Interactions	206	(7)
Forgetting	213	(4)
Models of Memory for New Information	217	(8)
General Approach	217	(1)
Simple Association Models	218	(1)
The SAM Model	219	(6)
Summary	225	(1)
Key Terms	226	(1)
Recommended Readings	226	(1)
8 Remembering New Information: Beyond Basic Effects	227	(40)
Introduction	228	(1)
Memory in the World	229	(13)
Eyewitness Testimony	229	(6)
Flashbulb Memories	235	(3)
Recovered Memories	238	(4)
Summary	242	(1)
Individual Differences	242	(8)
Introduction	242	(1)
Strategies and Knowledge	243	(2)
Extraordinary Memories	245	(2)
Amnesia	247	(2)
Summary	249	(1)
Implicit and Explicit Memory	250	(14)
Spared Learning in Amnesia	251	(4)
Implicit and Explicit Memory with Normal-Memory Adults	255	(3)
Theoretical Explanations	258	(5)
Evaluation	263	(1)
Summary	264	(1)
Key Terms	265	(1)
Recommended Readings	265	(2)
9 Representation of Knowledge and Its Use	267	(50)
Introduction	268	(1)
Semantic Knowledge	268	(6)
Introduction	268	(1)
The Hierarchical Model	269	(3)
Are Episodic and Semantic Memory Distinct Memory Systems?	272	(2)
Two Models of Memory Including Episodic and Semantic Information	274	(19)
Introduction	274	(1)
The ACT Theory	274	(10)
A Parallel Distributed Processing Model of Memory	284	(9)
Summary	293	(1)
Larger Knowledge Structures and Their Use in Understanding	293	(4)
Schemas	297	(12)
Motivation	297	(1)
What Is a Schema?	298	(3)
Scripts	301	(4)
Schema Activation	305	(1)
Problems with Schemas	305	(1)
Reconstructive Memory	306	(3)
Summary	309	(1)
Key Terms	310	(1)
Recommended Readings	310	(1)
Appendix: Learning in a Parallel Distributed Processing Model	311	(6)
PART IV LANGUAGE AND UNDERSTANDING	317	(80)
10 Language	319	(30)
Introduction	320	(7)
The Brain and Language	320	(2)
Functions of Language	322	(1)
Levels and Structure	323	(1)
Important Properties of Natural Language	324	(3)
Phonology	327	(2)
Phonological Rules	327	(2)
Syntax	329	(12)
The Need for Structure	329	(1)
Structure	330	(5)
The Psychological Reality of Syntax	335	(1)
Understanding Language	336	(3)
A Second Look at Modularity	339	(2)
Text Comprehension	341	(3)
Pragmatics	344	(3)
The Given-New Strategy	344	(1)
Presupposition and Assertion	345	(1)
Conversational Maxims	345	(2)
Summary	347	(1)
Key Terms	347	(1)
Recommended Readings	348	(1)
11 Language Acquisition	349	(19)
Introduction	350	(6)
The Learning Problem	350	(1)
Input Conditions	351	(3)
Innateness	354	(1)
Productivity and the Status of Rules	354	(1)
Overview	355	(1)
Course of Language Acquisition	356	(2)
Early Development	356	(1)
Later Development	357	(1)
Summary	358	(1)
Constraints and Interactions	358	(8)
Phonology	358	(1)
Syntax	359	(5)
Word Meanings	364	(2)
Summary	366	(1)
Key Terms	367	(1)
Recommended Readings	367	(1)
12 Concepts and Categories: Representation and Use	368	(29)
Introduction	369	(5)
Why Categorize?	369	(1)
Computational Complexity	370	(1)
Functions of Concepts	370	(2)
Concepts and Misconceptions	372	(2)
Structure of Natural Object Categories	374	(17)
The Classical View	375	(1)
The Probabilistic View	376	(6)
Between-Category Structure	382	(2)
Does Similarity Explain Categorization?	384	(4)
Concepts as Organized by Theories	388	(1)
Putting Similarity in Its Place	389	(2)
Summary	391	(1)
Use of Categories in Reasoning	391	(3)
Goals and Ad Hoc Categories	392	(1)
Conceptual Combination	392	(1)
Induction	393	(1)
Summary	394	(1)
Key Terms	395	(1)
Recommended Readings	395	(2)
PART V THINKING	397	(136)
13 Reasoning	399	(38)
Introduction	400	(3)
Deductive Versus Inductive Reasoning	403	(1)
Deductive Reasoning	403	(14)
Conditional Reasoning	404	(6)
Categorical Syllogisms	410	(6)
Do People Have Abstract Reasoning Structures or Rules?	416	(1)
Inductive Reasoning	417	(7)
Argument Structure	418	(1)
Inductive Strength, Similarity, and Analogy	419	(3)
Hypothesis Testing and Scientific Reasoning	422	(2)
Probabilistic Reasoning	424	(4)
Test Quality	424	(2)
Base Rate Neglect	426	(2)
Mental Models and Intuitive Theories	428	(6)
Mental Models and Health Behavior	429	(3)
Intuitive Theories	432	(2)
Summary	434	(1)
Key Terms	435	(1)
Recommended Readings	435	(2)
14 Problem Solving	437	(32)
Introduction	438	(4)
Problems, Problems, Problems	438	(1)
What Is a Problem?	438	(1)
Types of Problems	439	(1)
Methods for Studying Problem Solving	440	(2)
Problem Solving as Representation and Search	442	(16)
Introduction	442	(1)
The Problem Space Analysis	443	(3)
Problem Solving as Search	446	(6)
Problem Solving as Representation	452	(6)
Summary of Problem Solving as Representation and Search	458	(1)
Reliance on Specific Relevant Knowledge	458	(9)
Introduction	458	(1)
The Influence of Related Problems	459	(6)
Case-Based Reasoning: An Al Approach	465	(2)
Summary	467	(1)
Key Terms	468	(1)
Recommended Readings	468	(1)
15 Expertise and Creativity	469	(35)
Introduction	470	(1)
Expertise	470	(22)
Introduction	470	(1)
Comparing Experts and Novices	471	(7)
Developing Expertise	478	(9)
Expert Systems	487	(3)
Adaptive Expertise	490	(1)
Summary	491	(1)
Creativity	492	(10)
Introduction	492	(2)
The Traditional View	494	(2)
Some Recent Views of Creativity	496	(6)
Summary	502	(1)
Key Terms	503	(1)
Recommended Readings	503	(1)
16 Judgment and Decision Making	504	(29)
Introduction	505	(2)
Normative or Rational Models	507	(2)
Expected Value Theory	507	(1)
Expected Utility Theory	508	(1)
Limitations of Expected Utility and Alternatives to It	509	(10)
Violations of Expected Utility	509	(6)
Prospect Theory	515	(1)
Regret Theory	516	(1)
Decision Making Over Time	517	(1)
Summary	518	(1)
Dealing with Complexity	519	(2)
Strategies for Dealing with Complexity	519	(1)
Adaptive Decision Making	520	(1)
Further Heuristics and Biases	521	(8)
Availability Heuristic	522	(2)
Representativeness Heuristic	524	(1)
Anchoring and Adjustment	525	(1)
Causal Schemas	525	(1)
Hindsight Bias	526	(1)
Overconfidence	527	(1)
Relativity of Judgment and Use of Norms	528	(1)
Heuristics in Perspective	529	(1)
Summary	529	(1)
Key Terms	530	(1)
Recommended Readings	530	(3)
Glossary	533	(14)
References	547	(28)
Copyrights and Acknowledgments	575	(4)
Author Index	579	(10)
Subject Index	589