Constitutional Interpretation

by Ducat, Craig R.

• ISBN13: 9780534613983
• ISBN10: 0534613985
• Edition: 8th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-06-12
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

One of the best-known, most comprehensive and widely read Constitutional Law textbooks published, CONSTITUTIONAL INTERPRETATION is consistently updated to reflect current issues and cases relevant to students. Offering a good balance between textual explanation and edited Court cases written in clear, concise language, the text remains the standard text for students and instructors alike.

Table of Contents

Preface	iv
Summary of Contents	vi
Table of Cases	xv
Judicial Power	1	(78)
The Supreme Court's Jurisdiction and Its Assumption of Judicial Review	3	(35)
Judicial Review	3	(1)
Marbury v. Madison	4	(7)
Note---When Should Judges Disqualify Themselves?	11	(2)
Eakin v. Raub: Justice Gibson's Dissenting Opinion	13	(4)
Original Jurisdiction	17	(1)
Supreme Court Review of State Court Decisions	18	(1)
Martin v. Hunter's Lessee	19	(4)
Appellate Jurisdiction	23	(1)
Ex Parte McCardle	24	(2)
Checking the Court	26	(1)
The Structure of the Judicial System	27	(1)
Exhibit 1.1---The Flow of Cases to the U.S. Supreme Court	28	(1)
Exhibit 1.2---United States Courts of Appeals and United States District Courts	29	(1)
The Writ of Certiorari	30	(1)
Rule 10---Considerations Governing Review on Certiorari	31	(2)
Exhibit 1.3---Constitutional Decisions as a Proportion of All Supreme Court Decisions	33	(1)
The Process by Which the Supreme Court Decides Cases	34	(4)
Judicial Independence	38	(1)
Institutional Constraints on the Exercise of Judicial Power	38	(41)
Case and Controversy	39	(1)
Muskrat v. United States	40	(3)
Note---Mootness: The Defunis and Sosna Cases	43	(1)
Ripeness	44	(1)
National Treasury Employees Union v. United States	45	(1)
Standing	46	(1)
Allen v. Wright	47	(7)
Note---City of Los Angeles v. Lyons	54	(2)
Note---Do Federal Taxpayers as Such Have Standing to Sue?	56	(1)
Political Questions	57	(3)
Baker v. Carr	60	(8)
Bush v. Gore	68	(7)
Note---Goldwater v. Carter	75	(2)
The Debate over Justiciability	77	(1)
Discretionary and Ministerial Acts	78	(1)
The Modes of Constitutional Interpretation	79	(25)
The Traditional Theory of Judicial Review: Constitutional Absolutism or Interpretivism	80	(5)
The Balancing of Interests or Judicial Self-Restraint	85	(5)
Strict Scrutiny or the Preferred Freedoms Approach	90	(3)
The Court in American History: Judicial Values and Constitutional Interpretation	93	(9)
The Court and Political Accountability	102	(2)
Legislative Power	104	(72)
Qualifications of Members of Congress	104	(1)
The Sources and Scope of Congress's Power to Legislate	105	(23)
Enumerated and Implied Powers	106	(1)
McCulloch v. Maryland	107	(6)
Amendment-Enforcing Powers	113	(1)
South Carolina v. Katzenbach	113	(6)
City of Boerne v. Flores	119	(4)
Inherent Powers	123	(2)
The Treaty Power	125	(1)
Missouri v. Holland	126	(1)
Note---The Proposed Bricker Amendment	127	(1)
Delegation of Legislative Power	128	(25)
J. W. Hampton, Jr., & Co. v. United States	129	(3)
Note---The Panama Refining and Schechter Cases	132	(2)
The Economic Stabilization Act of 1970	134	(3)
Immigration & Naturalization Service v. Chadha	137	(7)
Note---Bowsher v. Synar	144	(2)
Note---Mistretta v. United States	146	(1)
Clinton v. City of New York	147	(6)
The Power to Investigate	153	(20)
Investigations and the First Amendment	154	(1)
Note---The Court and Congressional Investigations of Communist Activities: The Watkins and Barenblatt Cases	155	(6)
Court-Curb Proposals Stimulated by Controversial Decisions	161	(2)
Exhibit 3.1---Comparing the Voting Patterns in the Watkins and Barenblatt Cases	163	(1)
Gibson v. Florida Legislative Investigation Committee	164	(4)
Immunity	168	(1)
United States v. North	169	(4)
The Speech or Debate Clause (Congressional Immunity)	173	(3)
Executive Power	176	(96)
The President's Appointment and Removal Powers	176	(15)
Myers v. United States	178	(7)
Morrison v. Olson	185	(6)
The Scope of Executive Power	191	(51)
Theories of Executive Power	191	(3)
Ex Parte Milligan	194	(7)
Korematsu v. United States	201	(8)
Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer [The Steel Seizure Case]	209	(8)
Presidential Power Under Nixon	217	(1)
Note---The Nixon-Frost Interview	218	(3)
Executive Privilege	221	(1)
United States v. Nixon	222	(9)
The Attorney-Client and Protective Function Privileges	231	(2)
The Clinton Impeachment	233	(2)
Liability of the President for Damages	235	(1)
Nixon v. Fitzgerald	236	(6)
The President's Power to Pardon	242	(7)
In Re Grand Jury Subpoenas Dated March 9, 2001	246	(3)
Executive Authority in the Conduct of Foreign Affairs	249	(23)
Executive Agreements	250	(1)
United States v. Belmont	250	(3)
Note---Settlement of the Iranian Hostages Crisis	253	(1)
Presidential Dominance in Foreign Relations	254	(1)
United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.	255	(5)
The Power to Use Military Force	260	(1)
The War Powers Resolution	261	(3)
Dellums v. Bush	264	(8)
Powers of the National Government in the Federal System	272	(92)
Dual Federalism	273	(2)
National Supremacy and Cooperative Federalism	275	(2)
The General Scope of Congress's Power to Regulate Interstate Commerce	277	(24)
Gibbons v. Ogden	278	(6)
Stafford v. Wallace	284	(2)
Houston, East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States [The Shreveport Rate Case]	286	(1)
The ``Federal Police Power''	287	(1)
Champion v. Ames [The Lottery Case]	288	(4)
Note---Brooks v. United States	292	(1)
The Commerce Power and Racial Discrimination	293	(1)
Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States	294	(3)
Katzenbach v. McClung	297	(3)
Note---Daniel v. Paul	300	(1)
Congress's Power to Regulate Production Under the Commerce Clause	301	(27)
The Rise of Dual Federalism	301	(3)
Exhibit 5.1---The Meaning of Interstate Commerce	304	(1)
Hammer v. Dagenhart [The Child Labor Case]	304	(4)
Carter v. Carter Coal Co.	308	(6)
Exhibit 5.2---The Changing Face of American Politics: The Coming of the New Deal	314	(1)
The Decline of Dual Federalism	314	(1)
Exhibit 5.3---Voting Blocs on the United States Supreme Court	315	(1)
National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp.	316	(8)
Wickard v. Filburn	324	(4)
Rekindling Dual Federalism: The Rehnquist Court	328	(13)
The Rehnquist Court and the Commerce Clause	328	(1)
United States v. Lopez	328	(4)
United States v. Morrison	332	(6)
Exhibit 5.4---Voting Positions of the Justices During the 1980s and 1990s	338	(1)
The Eleventh Amendment	339	(2)
The Taxing and Spending Power	341	(23)
McCray v. United States	342	(3)
The Rise of Dual Federalism	345	(1)
Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co. [The Child Labor Tax Case]	345	(3)
United States v. Butler	348	(5)
The Decline of Dual Federalism	353	(1)
Steward Machine Co. v. Davis	353	(5)
South Dakota v. Dole	358	(6)
The Regulatory Power of the States in the Federal System	364	(49)
The Police Power	364	(1)
Jacobson v. Massachusetts	365	(2)
Federal Preemption and Federal Dictation	367	(2)
Pacific Gas & Electric Co. v. State Energy Resources Conservation & Development Commission	369	(6)
Other Cases on Preemption	375	(1)
New York v. United States	376	(6)
Printz v. United States	382	(7)
The Interstate Movement of Persons	389	(1)
Edwards v. California	390	(3)
The Negative or Dormant Commerce Clause	393	(1)
Cooley v. The Board of Wardens of the Port of Philadelphia	394	(3)
Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp.	397	(7)
City of Philadelphia v. State of New Jersey	404	(5)
Other Cases on State Regulation	409	(1)
Judicial Federalism	410	(3)
Property Rights and Economic Liberties	413	(54)
The Contract Clause and the State Police Power	414	(13)
Fletcher v. Peck	415	(2)
Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward [The Dartmouth College Case]	417	(4)
Home Building & Loan Association v. Blaisdell [The Minnesota Moratorium Case]	421	(6)
The Life and Death of ``Liberty of Contract''	427	(25)
Social Darwinism	427	(2)
Exhibit 7.1---The Translation of Social and Political Values into Constitutional Decisions, 1895-1936	429	(1)
The Rise of ``Liberty of Contract''	429	(1)
Butchers' Benevolent Association v. Crescent City Livestock Landing & Slaughterhouse Co. [The Slaughterhouse Cases]	430	(4)
Munn v. Illinois	434	(3)
Allgeyer v. Louisiana	437	(2)
Note---The Adair and Coppage Cases	439	(2)
Lochner v. New York	441	(4)
Muller v. Oregon	445	(1)
The End of ``Liberty of Contract''	446	(1)
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish	447	(3)
City of New Orleans v. Dukes	450	(2)
Note---Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Co.	452	(1)
The Regulation and ``Taking'' of Property	452	(15)
Penn Central Transportation Co. v. City of New York	453	(8)
Dolan v. City of Tigard	461	(6)
Due Process of Law	467	(133)
Due Process and the Federal System: The Selective Incorporation of the Bill of Rights into the fourteenth Amendment	467	(34)
The Bill of Rights Before Incorporation	467	(1)
Barron v. The Mayor and City Council of Baltimore	468	(2)
Butchers' Benevolent Association v. Crescent City Livestock Landing & Slaughterhouse Co. [The Slaughterhouse Cases]	470	(5)
The Theories and Process of Incorporation	475	(3)
Exhibit 8.1---The Four Theories of Incorporation	478	(1)
Exhibit 8.2---The Process of Incorporation	479	(2)
Hurtado v. California	481	(3)
Palko v. Connecticut	484	(2)
Adamson v. California	486	(4)
Rochin v. California	490	(3)
The Jury Trial Guarantee: A Case Study of Incorporation	493	(5)
The Nonincorporated Second Amendment	498	(3)
The Right to Counsel	501	(32)
Competing Priorities in Criminal Justice	501	(1)
Herbert L. Packer, Two Models of the Criminal Process	502	(5)
The Right to Counsel at Trial	507	(1)
Powell v. Alabama	508	(3)
Gideon v. Wainwright	511	(4)
Note---The Effective Assistance of Counsel	515	(2)
Other Cases on Effective Assistance to the Defense	517	(1)
The Pretrial Right to Counsel	517	(1)
Miranda v. Arizona	518	(7)
Note---The Right to Counsel at Lineups	525	(2)
Brewer v. Williams	527	(5)
Note---Nix v. Williams: The ``Fruit of the Poisonous Tree'' Doctrine and the ``Inevitable Discovery'' Exception	532	(1)
The Right Against Self-Incrimination	533	(16)
California v. Byers	536	(4)
Note---Testimonial Evidence in Drunk Driving Cases	540	(2)
The Voluntariness of Confessions Before Miranda	542	(1)
Admissibility of Confessions After Miranda	543	(1)
New York v. Quarles	544	(5)
Confrontation and Cross-Examination	549	(7)
Maryland v. Craig	550	(6)
Cruel and Unusual Punishment	556	(44)
Punishment for an Act, Note a Condition	556	(1)
Robinson v. California	556	(2)
Note---Powell v. Texas	558	(2)
The Death Penalty	560	(1)
Furman v. Georgia	561	(5)
Note---The Death Penalty Cases of 1976	566	(6)
Mote---Coker v. Georgia	572	(1)
Note---Lockett v. Ohio	573	(2)
McCleskey v. Kemp	575	(7)
Other Cases on the Imposition of Capital Punishment	582	(2)
Victim Impact Evidence	584	(1)
Payne v. Tennessee	584	(4)
Mandatory Life Imprisonment	588	(1)
Forfeiture	589	(1)
Prisoners' Rights	590	(2)
Confining Dangerous Persons Other Than upon Criminal Conviction	592	(1)
Kansas v. Hendricks	593	(4)
Excessive Fines and Excessive Bail	597	(3)
Obtaining Evidence	600	(104)
The Exclusionary Rule	600	(20)
Mapp v. Ohio	602	(6)
Stone v. Powell	608	(4)
United States v. Leon	612	(7)
Other ``Honest Mistake'' Rulings	619	(1)
Warrantless Searches and Seizures	620	(41)
Consent	620	(1)
United States v. Drayton	621	(3)
Search Incident to Arrest	624	(1)
Chimel v. California	624	(3)
Other Cases on Arrests, Searches, and Detentions in and about the Home	627	(1)
Hot Pursuit	628	(1)
Warden v. Hayden	628	(1)
Motor Vehicles	629	(1)
Coolidge v. New Hampshire	629	(4)
Other Cases on Automobile Searches	633	(1)
Plain Sight	634	(1)
California v. Ciraolo	634	(3)
Kyllo v. United States	637	(3)
Note---Is There a ``Plain Touch'' Exception as Well?	640	(1)
Other Cases on the ``Plain Sight'' Exception	641	(2)
Emergencies and Inspections	643	(1)
Michigan v. Tyler	644	(3)
Street Stops	647	(1)
Terry v. Ohio	648	(3)
Sibron v. New York and Peters v. New York	651	(3)
Note---When May Police Officers Use Deadly Force?	654	(1)
Other Cases Drawing upon Terry v. Ohio	655	(2)
Border Searches	657	(1)
Probable Cause and Reasonableness	658	(1)
Cupp v. Murphy	659	(2)
Current Controversies in Search and Seizure Law	661	(22)
National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab	661	(6)
Other Cases Where ``Special Needs'' Have Been Asserted to Override the Requirement of Individualized Suspicion	667	(1)
New Jersey v. T.L.O.	668	(7)
Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz	675	(5)
California v. Greenwood	680	(3)
Wiretapping and Eavesdropping	683	(21)
Other Cases on the Expectation of Privacy	684	(1)
Olmstead v. United States	685	(4)
Berger v. New York	689	(2)
Katz v. United States	691	(3)
Note---Use of a Pen Register Does Not Constitute a ``Search''	694	(1)
Note---What Protection is There for Cordless Phones, Cell Phones, and E-Mail?	695	(1)
United States v. United States District Court for Eastern District of Michigan	696	(4)
Note---The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act	700	(4)
The Right of Privacy	704	(71)
Reproductive Rights and Family Values Before Griswold	704	(2)
Recognizing a Constitutional Right of Privacy	706	(1)
Griswold v. Connecticut	707	(5)
Other Cases on Contraception Regulation After Griswold	712	(1)
Abortion	713	(1)
Roe v. Wade	713	(7)
Other Cases on Abortion Regulation After Roe v. Wade	720	(1)
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health: Justice O'Connor's Dissenting Opinion	721	(2)
Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey	723	(11)
Stenberg v. Carhart	734	(5)
Note---The Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act of 1993	739	(1)
Note---Antiabortion Protests and the Federal Racketeering Law	740	(1)
Restricting the Use of Public Funds and Facilities in Performing Abortions	740	(1)
Maher v. Roe	741	(3)
Note---The Constitutionality of the Hyde Amendment	744	(2)
Note---The Constitutionality of the ``Gag Rule''	746	(3)
Privacy and Other Lifestyle Issues	749	(1)
Bowers v. Hardwick	749	(7)
Exhibit 10.1---State Decriminalization of Private Sexual Acts Between Consenting Adults of the Same Sex	756	(2)
Grusendorf v. Oklahoma City	758	(3)
United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative	761	(2)
The Right to Die	763	(2)
Washington v. Glucksberg	765	(5)
Vacco v. Quill	770	(3)
Note---Oregon's Death With Dignity Law	773	(2)
Freedom of Speech	775	(155)
The Literal Meaning of ``Speech''	776	(2)
The Social Function of Speech	778	(2)
The Effects of Speech	780	(2)
The ``Clear and Present Danger'' Test	782	(29)
Justices Holmes and Brandeis and the ``Clear and Present Danger'' Test	782	(1)
Schenck v. United States	783	(1)
Note---Justice Holmes Dissenting in Abrams v. United States	784	(1)
Note---Justice Brandeis Concurring in Whitney v. California	785	(2)
The ``Bad Tendency'' Test	787	(1)
Gitlow v. New York	788	(3)
The Preferred Freedoms Approach	791	(1)
Thomas v. Collins: Justice Rutledge's Opinion	791	(3)
Terminiello v. Chicago	794	(4)
The ``Clear and Probable Danger'' Test	798	(4)
``Clear and Present Danger'' Triumphant	802	(1)
Brandenburg v. Ohio	802	(2)
Note---Murder by the Book	804	(2)
Note---The ``Nuremberg Files'' Case	806	(2)
The ``Heckler's Veto''	808	(1)
Note---The Feiner and Forsyth County Cases	809	(2)
Time, Place, and Manner Limitations	811	(47)
Speech in a ``Public Forum''	812	(1)
Adderley v. Florida	813	(2)
Note---Free Speech at the Airport: The ISKCON Cases	815	(4)
Ward v. Rock Against Racism	819	(4)
Note---Can Begging Be Banned?	823	(2)
Madsen v. Women's Health Center, Inc.	825	(7)
Rosenberger v. Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia	832	(6)
Speech on Private Property	838	(1)
Hudgens v. National Labor Relations Board	839	(5)
Note---Prune Yard Shopping Center v. Robins	844	(3)
City of Ladue v. Gilleo	847	(3)
Offensiveness	850	(1)
Cohen v. California	851	(2)
Note---The Outdoor Movie Screen	853	(1)
Note---The ``Filthy Words'' Monologue	854	(2)
Note---Nazis Marching Through Skokie	856	(1)
Other Cases on Time, Place, and Manner Limitations Generally	857	(1)
Symbolic Speech	858	(29)
Compelling the Flag Salute	858	(1)
West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette [The Flag Salute Case]	858	(7)
Protest in School	865	(1)
Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District	865	(4)
Draft Card Burning and the Beginning of Intermediate Scrutiny in the Regulation of ``Speech Plus''	869	(1)
United States v. O'Brien	870	(3)
Flag Burning and Nude Dancing: Whether to Apply the O'Brien Test	873	(1)
Texas v. Johnson	873	(7)
Cross Burning and Hate Speech	880	(1)
R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul	881	(6)
Campaign Finance Reform, Corporate Speech, and Party Patronage	887	(25)
Campaign Finance Reform	887	(1)
Buckley v. Valeo	888	(7)
Note---The NCPAC Case	895	(3)
Corporate Speech	898	(1)
First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti	899	(4)
Note---The Controversy Over Advocacy by Public Utilities Using Bill Inserts	903	(3)
More Cases on the First Amendment and Legislation Aimed at Preserving the Integrity of the Electoral and Governmental Processes	906	(1)
Party Patronage	906	(1)
Branti v. Finkel	907	(5)
Commercial Speech	912	(15)
Central Hudson Gas & Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission of New York	913	(7)
Note---State and Local Regulation of Tobacco Advertising	920	(2)
Other Cases On Commercial Speech	922	(1)
Note---The Ohralik and Primus Cases	922	(5)
Chapter Summary	927	(3)
Exhibit 11.1---The Three Tiers of Constitutional Scrutiny in Free Speech Cases	928	(2)
Freedom of the Press	930	(115)
Censorship and Prior Restraint	931	(44)
The Right to Publish	931	(1)
Near v. Minnesota	932	(5)
Note---Censorship and the 2 Live Crew Case	937	(3)
New York Times Co. v. United States [The Pentagon Papers Case]	940	(6)
Note---United States v. Progressive, Inc.	946	(2)
Note---Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn	948	(2)
Cases on the Constitutionality of Sanctions Imposed for Newspaper Publication of Lawfully Obtained Confidential Information	950	(1)
Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier	950	(4)
Confidentiality of Sources	954	(1)
Branzburg v. Hayes	955	(2)
Note---In re Farber and the New York Times Co.	957	(4)
The Right of Access	961	(1)
Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo	961	(3)
Houchins v. KQED, Inc.	964	(7)
Note---The Freedom of Information Act	971	(1)
Note---Island Trees School District v. Pico	972	(3)
Obscenity	975	(31)
Roth v. United States and Alberts v. California	977	(5)
Stanley v. Georgia	982	(2)
Miller v. California	984	(3)
Note---Child Pornography Is Different	987	(3)
Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton	990	(4)
National Endowment for the Arts v. Finley	994	(4)
American Booksellers Association, Inc. v. Hudnut	998	(5)
Note---The Regulation of Indecency	1003	(3)
Libel	1006	(21)
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan	1006	(4)
Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts and Associated Press v. Walker	1010	(4)
Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.	1014	(6)
Note---Time, Inc. v. Firestone	1020	(1)
Note---Herbert v. Lando	1021	(2)
Other Cases On Libel	1023	(1)
Beauharnais v. Illinois	1024	(3)
Fair Trial---Free Press	1027	(18)
Sheppard v. Maxwell	1028	(4)
Nebraska Press Association v. Stuart	1032	(4)
Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia	1036	(6)
Note---Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court	1042	(1)
Other Cases on Fair Trial---Free Press	1043	(2)
Freedom of Religion	1045	(78)
The Establishment Clause	1045	(58)
Prayer, Bible-Reading, and Sunday Closing Laws	1048	(2)
Lee v. Weisman	1050	(7)
Note---Does Permitting a Minute of Silent ``Prayer'' Constitute Government Endorsement of Religion?	1057	(4)
The Lemon Test and Financial Aid to Religion	1061	(1)
Walz v. Tax Commission of City of New York	1062	(3)
Lemon v. Kurtzman	1065	(4)
Tilton v. Richardson	1069	(5)
Agostini v. Felton	1074	(7)
Zelman v. Simmons-Harris	1081	(7)
Whither Lemon?	1088	(1)
Edwards v. Aguillard	1089	(4)
Note---Lynch v. Donnelly	1093	(2)
Note---Allegheny County v. American Civil Liberties Union	1095	(3)
Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet	1098	(5)
The Free Exercise of Religious Belief	1103	(20)
Thomas v. Indiana Employment Security Review Board	1104	(6)
Wisconsin v. Yoder	1110	(5)
Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon v. Smith	1115	(8)
Equal Protection of the Laws	1123	(1)
Racial Discrimination	1124	(55)
The Doctrine of ``Separate but Equal''	1124	(1)
Plessy v. Ferguson	1124	(4)
Sweatt v. Painter	1128	(2)
The Brown Decision	1130	(1)
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka I	1131	(3)
Note---Stell v. Savannah-Chatham County Board of Education	1134	(2)
Note---Bolling v. Sharpe	1136	(1)
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka II	1136	(2)
Cooper v. Aaron	1138	(4)
The Scope and Duration of Desegregation	1142	(1)
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education	1142	(6)
Milliken v. Bradley	1148	(7)
Missouri v. Jenkins	1155	(5)
Proving Discriminatory Intent	1160	(1)
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.	1161	(2)
Palmer v. Thompson	1163	(3)
Affirmative Action or ``Reverse Discrimination''	1166	(1)
Note---Regents of the University of California v. Bakke	1167	(3)
Other Cases on Affirmative Action	1170	(1)
City of Richmond v. J. A. Croson Co.	1171	(8)
``Private'' Discrimination and the Concept of ``State Action''	1179	(29)
The Civil Rights Cases	1179	(4)
``State Action'' Under the Fourteenth Amendment	1183	(1)
Shelley v. Kraemer	1184	(2)
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority	1186	(2)
Other Cases On ``State Action'' Decided by the Warren Court	1188	(1)
Note---Moose Lodge No. 107 v. Irvis	1189	(1)
Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co.	1190	(3)
Reaching Private Conduct Through the Thirteenth Amendment	1193	(1)
Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.	1194	(3)
Runyon v. McCrary	1197	(4)
Private Discrimination and First Amendment Issues	1201	(1)
Note---Denying Tax-Exempt Status to Private Schools That Practice Racial Discrimination	1202	(1)
Note---Roberts v. United States Jaycees	1202	(2)
Boy Scouts of America v. Dale	1204	(4)
Voting Rights and Electoral Discrimination	1208	(18)
The Voting Rights Act	1208	(1)
South Carolina v. Katzenbach	1209	(5)
Voting Rights and Constitutional Access to the Ballot	1214	(1)
Kramer v. Union Free School District No. 15	1214	(4)
Note---Can a State Require That Candidates Be Selected by a Closed Primary or by a Blanket Primary?	1218	(2)
The 2000 Presidential Election	1220	(1)
Bush v. Gore	1221	(5)
Malapportionment	1226	(23)
Baker v. Carr	1226	(8)
Reynolds v. Sims	1234	(4)
Lucas v. Forty-Fourth General Assembly of Colorado	1238	(5)
Note---Davis v. Bandemer	1243	(1)
Shaw v. Reno	1244	(5)
Economic and Social Discrimination	1249	(1)
Social Welfare Benefits and Limitations on the Right to Travel	1250	(1)
Exhibit 14.1---The Supreme Court's Multi-Tier Approach to Equal Protection Analysis	1251	(1)
Shapiro v. Thompson	1252	(5)
Note---Receiving Social Welfare Benefits and the Right to International Travel	1257	(1)
Indigency	1258	(1)
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez	1259	(10)
Note---Equality in the Financing of Public Education as a Matter of State Constitutional Law	1269	(1)
Illegitimacy	1270	(1)
Exhibit 14.2---State Court Rulings on the Equal Funding of Public Education	1271	(1)
Labine v. Vincent	1271	(3)
Gender	1274	(1)
Bradwell v. Illinois	1275	(2)
Frontiero v. Richardson	1277	(2)
Craig v. Boren	1279	(6)
United States v. Virginia	1285	(6)
Nguyen v. Immigration & Naturalization Service	1291	(6)
Age	1297	(1)
Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia	1297	(4)
Mental Impairment	1301	(1)
Note---City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center	1302	(1)
Sexual Preference	1303	(1)
Steffan v. Perry	1304	(5)
Romer v. Evans	1309	(4)
Note---Same-Sex Marriage, the Full Faith and Credit Clause, and Civil Unions	1313	(2)
Alienage	1315	(1)
Ambach v. Norwick	1316	(4)
Note---Illegal Aliens and Public Education	1320	(1)
Note---The Constitutionality of State Action Denying Benefits to Illegal Aliens	1321
APPENDIX A. TIME CHART OF THE U.S. SUPREME COURT	1	(1)
APPENDIX B. BIOGRAPHICAL CHART OF SUPREME COURT JUSTICES SINCE 1900	1	(1)
APPENDIX C. BIOGRAPHIES OF THE CURRENT JUSTICES	1	(1)
APPENDIX D. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES	1	(1)
APPENDIX E. A BRIEF GUIDE TO LEGAL CITATIONS AND RESEARCH	1	(1)
Exhibit E.1---The National Reporter System	2	(1)
Exhibit E.2---Map of the National Reporter System	3
Glossary	1	(1)
Index	1