Critical Thinking The Art of Argument

by Rainbolt, George W.; Dwyer, Sandra L.

• ISBN13: 9780495501572
• ISBN10: 0495501573
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2011-01-01
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

With a complete, approachable presentation, CRITICAL THINKING: THE ART OF ARGUMENT is an accessible yet rigorous introduction to critical thinking. The text emphasizes immediate application of critical-thinking skills to real life. The relevance of these skills is shown throughout the text by highlighting the advantages of basing one's decisions on a thoughtful understanding of arguments and presenting the overarching commonalities across arguments. With its conversational writing style and carefully selected examples, the book employs a consistent and unified treatment of logical form and an innovative semiformal method of standardizing arguments that illustrates the concept of logical form while maintaining a visible connection to ordinary speech. Without sacrificing accuracy or detail, the authors have clearly presented the material with appropriate study tools and exercises that emphasize application rather than memorization.

Table of Contents

Critical Thinking & Arguments

What Critical Thinking Is

What an Argument Is

Statements

Statements v. Sentences

Why Think Critically

Finding Arguments

The First Three Steps

Look for an Attempt to Convince

Find the Conclusion

Find the Premises

Complicating Factors

Indicator Words Are Imperfect Guides

Sentence Order

Conclusions and Premises Not in Declarative Form

Unstated Premises and Unstated Conclusions

Things That Are Not Arguments

Assertions

Descriptions

Questions and Instructions

Explanations

Putting Arguments into Standard Form

Diagramming Arguments

Chapter Summary

What Makes a Good Argument

The Two Characteristics of a Good Argument

True Premises

Audience

The Problem of Ignorance

Proper Form

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Guide: Terms Used in Logic, Philosophy and Math

Relevance

Dependent and Independent Premises

Arguing about Arguments

Fallacies and Relevance

Fallacy: Easy Target

Fallacy: Appeal to Popularity

Fallacy: Appeal to Novelty or Tradition

Fallacy: Ad Hominem

Fallacy: Appeal to Ignorance

Fallacy: Begging the Question

Chapter Summary

Premises and Conclusions

Three Kinds of Premises

Empirical Statements

Testimonial Empirical Statements

Definitional Statements

Statements by Experts

Appropriate Credentials

Reliability

Lack of Bias

Appropriate Area of Expertise

Fallacy: Inappropriate Expertise

Expert Consensus

Guide: Proper Citation of Experts

Premises and the Internet

A Common Mistake

Conclusions

Strength of Conclusions

Scope of Conclusions

Chapter Summary

Language

Identifying Definitions

Extension and Intension

Genus and Species

Dictionary Definitions

Technical Definitions

Evaluating Definitions

Correct Extension

Correct Intension

Language and Clarity

Ambiguity

Fallacy: Equivocation

Vagueness

Language and Emotion

Fallacy: Appeal to Emotions

Persuasive Definitions

Euphemism

Rhetorical Devices

Chapter Summary

Propositional Arguments

Identifying Propositional Statements

Negations

Disjunctions

Conjunctions

Conditionals

Conditionals: Some Complications

Evaluating Propositional Arguments

Denying a Disjunct

Fallacy: Affirming an Inclusive Disjunct

Affirming an Exclusive Disjunct

Fallacy: False Dichotomy

Affirming the Antecedent

Fallacy: Denying the Antecedent

Denying the Consequent

Fallacy: Affirming the Consequent

Tri-conditional

Chapter Summary

Categorical Arguments

Identifying Categorical Statements

Universal Affirmation, All G1 Are G2

Universal Negation, All G1 Are Not G2

Particular Affirmation, Some G1 Are G2

Particular Negation, Some G1 Are Not G2

Evaluating Categorical Arguments with One Premise

Fallacy: Confusing a Contrary and a Contradictory

Conversion

Complements

Contraposition

Obversion

Evaluating Categorical Arguments with Two Premises

Identifying Categorical Syllogisms

Evaluating Categorical Syllogisms: the Test Method

The Equal Negations Test

The Distributed Conclusion Test

The Distributed Middle Category Test

Evaluating Categorical Syllogisms: the Venn Method

Chapter Summary

Analogical Arguments

Identifying Analogical Arguments

The Form of Analogies

Illustrative Analogies

Uses of Analogies

Logical Analogies

Refutation by Logical Analogy

Evaluating Analogical Arguments

The True Premises Test

The Proper Form Test

Relevance

Analogies, Consistency, and False Beliefs

Chapter Summary

Statistical Arguments

Descriptive Statistics

The Many Meanings of "Average." Standard Deviation

Distributions

Regressions

Identifying Statistical Arguments

Parts of a Statistical Argument

Statistical Arguments and Analogical Arguments

Evaluating Statistical Arguments

The True Premises Test

The Proper Form Test

Sampling Techniques

Statistical Fallacies

Fallacy: Hasty Generalization

Fallacy: Biased Sample

Fallacy: Biased Questions

Chapter Summary

Causal Arguments

The Many Meanings of "Cause." Cause as Necessary Condition

Cause as Sufficient Condition

Cause as Necessary and Sufficient Condition

Contributory Cause

Primary Cause

Remote and Proximate Causes

Identifying Causal Arguments

The Form of a Causal Argument

Evaluating Causal Arguments

Premise (1), Correlation

Binary Correlation

Scalar Correlation

Establishing Correlations, Mill's Methods

The Method of Agreement

The Method of Difference

The Joint Method of Agreement and Difference

The Method of Scalar Variation

Correlation Is Not Causation

Fallacy: Hasty Cause

Fallacy: Causal Slippery Slope

Premise (2), Causation and Time

Fallacy: Post Hoc

Premise (3), Third Party Causation

Causal Arguments by Elimination

Premise (4), Coincidental Correlation

The Scientific Method

Identify the Question to Be Answered

Formulate a Tentative Theory

Check for Correlations

Step 4

Check for Reverse Causation, Third-party Causation, and Coincidental Correlation

Develop New Questions

An Example of the Scientific Method

Chapter Summary

Moral Arguments

Identifying Moral Arguments

Values: Often Overlooked Presuppositions

The Nature of Moral Arguments

Moral Arguments and Truth

Moral Arguments, Emotion, and Self-interest

Evaluating Moral Arguments

Consequentialist Moral Arguments

Deontic Moral Arguments

Aretaic Moral Arguments

Moral Conflict

Chapter Summary

Reference Guide

Alphabetical List of Fallacies

Alphabetical List of Guides

Alphabetical List of Habits of Critical Thinkers

Alphabetical List of Key Concepts

Alphabetical List of Technical Terms

Index

Guide for Finding, Standardizing, and Evaluating Arguments

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