Culture's Consequences : Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations

by Geert Hofstede

• ISBN13: 9780803973244
• ISBN10: 0803973241
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-02-08
• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc

Summary

Geert Hofstede has completely rewritten, revised and updated Culture's Consequences for the twenty-first century, he has broadened the book's cross-disciplinary appeal, expanded the coverage of countries examined from 40 to more than 50, reformulated his arguments and a large amount of new literature has been included. The book is structured around five major dimensions: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity versus femininity; and long term versus short-term orientation.

Table of Contents

From the Preface to the First Edition (1980)	xv
Preface to the Second Edition	xvii
Summary of the Book	xix
1. Values and Culture	1	(35)
Summary of This Chapter	1	(1)
Definitions and Distinctions	1	(14)
Mental Programs	1	(3)
Describing Mental Programs in Measurable Terms	4	(1)
Values	5	(2)
Measuring Values	7	(2)
Culture	9	(2)
National Cultures and Their Stability	11	(2)
National Character and National Stereotypes	13	(2)
Cultural Relativism	15	(1)
Studying Culture	15	(9)
Comparing Cultures: Changing the Level of Analysis	15	(2)
Avoiding Ethnocentrism	17	(2)
The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach	19	(2)
Language and Translation	21	(2)
Matching Samples: Functional Equivalence	23	(1)
Modal and Marginal Phenomena	24	(1)
Dimensions of Culture	24	(10)
The Specific and the General	24	(2)
Searching for Dimensions of Culture	26	(2)
Dimensions Versus Typologies	28	(1)
Five Basic Problems of National Societies	28	(1)
Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature: Theory Based	29	(2)
Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature: Empirical	31	(3)
Culture Change	34	(7)
The Process of Culture Change	34	(1)
Culture Change and the IBM Data	34	(7)
Notes	36	(37)
2. Data Collection, Treatment, and Validation	41	(32)
Summary of This Chapter	41	(1)
The Research Settings	41	(8)
The IBM Corporation	41	(2)
The Use of Attitude Surveys in IBM	43	(3)
Questionnaire Translation and Survey Administration	46	(2)
The IBM Survey Database	48	(1)
A Second Research Setting: IMEDE Business School	49	(1)
Data Treatment	49	(16)
Frequency Distributions and Central Tendency Within Groups	49	(1)
ANOVA: Country, Occupation, Gender, and Age	50	(1)
Comparing 40 Countries: Matching Occupations	51	(1)
Extension to 50 Countries Plus Three Regions	52	(1)
Selecting Stable Questions	52	(1)
Eclectic Analysis: Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance	53	(3)
Work Goal Importance Data: Eliminating Acquiescence	56	(2)
Work Goal Importance: Ecological Factor Analysis	58	(1)
Putting the Four Dimensions Together	58	(2)
Value Shifts in IBM Between 1967-69 and 1971-73	60	(1)
Correlations Between Index Scores	60	(2)
Country Clusters	62	(1)
Multilingual Countries: Belgium, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia	63	(2)
Validation	65	(14)
The Reliability of Country Dimension Scores	65	(1)
Replicating the IBM Research	66	(1)
Comparing With Data From Other Sources	67	(1)
Economic, Geographic, and Demographic Indicators	68	(1)
Adding a Fifth Dimension	69	(2)
Studying Organizational Cultures	71	(2)
Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed	73	(6)
Notes	73	(64)
3. Power Distance	79	(58)
Summary of This Chapter	79	(1)
Inequality and Power Distance	79	(5)
On Animal and Human Inequality	79	(1)
Inequality in Society	80	(2)
Inequality in Organizations	82	(1)
The Concept of Power Distance	83	(1)
Power Distance and Human Inequality	84	(1)
Measuring National Differences in Power Distance in IBM	84	(7)
Organization of Chapters 3 Through 7	84	(1)
A Power Distance Index for IBM Countries	85	(3)
Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation	88	(2)
Gender Differences in Power Distance	90	(1)
Country Power Distance Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions	90	(1)
Validating PDI Against Data From Other Sources	91	(6)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	91	(1)
PDI Versus Studies of General Values in Society	92	(4)
Summary of General Connotations of the Power Distance Index Found in Survey Material	96	(1)
Origins and Implications of Country Power Distance Differences	97	(26)
The Power Distance Societal Norm	97	(1)
Power Distance in the Family	98	(2)
Power Distance, Schools, and Educational Systems	100	(2)
Power Distance in Work and Organization	102	(4)
Power Distance, Worker Participation, and "Industrial Democracy"	106	(4)
Power Distance and Political Systems	110	(3)
Power Distance and Religion, Ideology, and Theories of Power	113	(2)
Power Distance and Aviation Safety	115	(1)
Predictors of PDI: Latitude, Population Size, and Wealth	115	(2)
Power Distance and Historical Factors: D'Iribarne's Contribution	117	(2)
Power Distance and Historical Factors: The Roman Empire and Colonialism	119	(2)
The Future of Power Distance Differences	121	(2)
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter	123	(22)
Calculating the Power Distance Index by Country	123	(2)
Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation	125	(1)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	126	(1)
Results of Other Survey Studies Significantly Correlated With PDI	126	(2)
Indexes at the National Level Significantly Correlated With PDI	128	(4)
PDI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators	132	(3)
Trends in PDI	135	(2)
Notes	137	(62)
4. Uncertainty Avoidance	145	(1)
Summary of This Chapter	145	(1)
The Concept of Uncertainty Avoidance	145	(3)
Time, Future, Uncertainty, and Anxiety	145	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance in Organizations	146	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance	148	(1)
Measuring National Differences in Uncertainty Avoidance in IBM	148	(6)
An Uncertainty Avoidance Index for IBM Countries	148	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Power Distance	150	(1)
Occupation and Gender Differences in the Scores on the Uncertainty Avoidance Items	151	(2)
Country UAI Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions	153	(1)
Validating UAI Against Data From Other Sources	154	(5)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	154	(1)
UAI, Anxiety, and Emotions: Studies by Lynn and Others	155	(2)
UAI and Subjective Well-Being	157	(1)
UAI Versus Studies of General Values in Society	158	(1)
Summary of General Connotations of the Uncertainty Avoidance Index Found in Survey Material	159	(1)
Origins and Implications of Country Uncertainty Avoidance Differences	159	(24)
The Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Norm	159	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family	161	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance, Schools, and Educational Systems	162	(1)
UAI and Achievement Motivation: McClelland's Data	163	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Work Situation	165	(5)
Uncertainty Avoidance and Consumer Behavior	170	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance and Political Systems	171	(3)
Uncertainty Avoidance and Legislation	174	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance, Nationalism, and Xenophobia	175	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance and Religions	176	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance, Theories, and Games	177	(2)
Predictors of UAI	179	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance and Historical Factors	179	(2)
The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences	181	(2)
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter	183	(16)
Calculating the Uncertainty Avoidance Index by Country	183	(1)
Calculating Differences in Item Scores by Occupation	183	(1)
Country UAI, Average Age of Respondents, and Other IBM Survey Questions	184	(2)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	186	(2)
Studies of Stress and Well-Being	188	(2)
McClelland's Study of Motivation	190	(1)
Results of Other Surveys Correlated With UAI	190	(7)
Indexes at the National Level Correlated With UAI	197	(1)
UAI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators	198	(1)
Trends in UAI	198	(11)
Notes	199	(74)
5. Individualism and Collectivism	209	(1)
Summary of This Chapter	209	(1)
The Individual and the Collectivity	209	(5)
Individualism in Society	209	(3)
Individualism in Organizations and Organization Theories	212	(2)
Measuring National Differences in Individualism in IBM	214	(5)
An Individualism Index for Countries in the IBM Sample	214	(1)
Societal Versus Individual Individualism and Collectivism, and Whether Ind and Col Are One or Two Dimensions	215	(1)
Individualism Versus Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance	216	(2)
Individualism and Occupation, Gender, and Age	218	(1)
Country Individualism Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions	218	(1)
Validating IDV Against Data From Other Sources	219	(6)
Distinguishing IDV From PDI and GNP/Capita	219	(1)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	219	(1)
IDV Versus Schwartz's Values Surveys of Teachers and Students	220	(1)
IDV Versus Smith and Dugan's Analysis of Trompenaars's Data	221	(2)
IDV Versus Inglehart's Analysis of the World Values Survey	223	(1)
IDV Scores and Other Studies of General Values	224	(1)
Summary of Value Connotations of the Individualism Index Found in Surveys and Related Material	225	(1)
Origins and Implications of Country Individualism Differences	225	(30)
The Individualism Societal Norm	225	(1)
Individualism and Collectivism in the Family	225	(6)
Individualism and Collectivism Versus Personality and Behavior	231	(2)
Individualism and Collectivism in Language Use and Group Identity	233	(1)
Individualism and Collectivism, Schools, and Educational Systems	234	(1)
Individualism and Collectivism in the Work Situation	235	(5)
Collectivism and the Applicability of Management Methods	240	(1)
Individualism and Consumer Behavior	241	(1)
Health and Disability in Individualist and Collectivist Societies	242	(1)
Individualism or Collectivism, Political Systems, and Legislation	243	(6)
Individualism and Collectivism, Religions, and Ideas	249	(1)
Predictors of IDV: Wealth and Latitude	250	(3)
Individualism and Historical Factors	253	(1)
The Future of Individualism Differences	254	(1)
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter	255	(18)
Calculating the Individualism Index by Country	255	(2)
Work Goal Dimensions by Occupation	257	(1)
Country IDV Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions	258	(1)
Earlier Studies of Work Goals in IBM	258	(2)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	260	(4)
Results of Other Surveys Correlated With IDV	264	(4)
Indexes at the National Level Correlated With IDV	268	(1)
IDV Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators	269	(3)
Trends in IDV	272	(7)
Notes	273	(68)
6. Masculinity and Femininity	279	(1)
Summary of This Chapter	279	(1)
Sexes, Genders, and Gender Roles	279	(5)
Absolute, Statistical, and Social Sex Differences	279	(2)
Gender Differences in Work Goals	281	(3)
Measuring National Differences in Masculinity in IBM	284	(10)
A Masculinity Index for Countries in the IBM Sample	284	(1)
Masculinity and Occupation, Gender, and Age	285	(5)
Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions	290	(1)
MAS and Work Centrality in IBM	291	(1)
Societal Versus Individual Masculinity and Femininity, and Whether Mas and Fem Are One or Two Dimensions	292	(1)
Masculinity Versus Individualism	293	(1)
Validating MAS Against Data From Other Sources	294	(3)
The Need to Control for Wealth Differences	294	(1)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	295	(1)
MAS Scores Versus Other Values Surveys	296	(1)
Summary of Connotations of the Masculinity Index Found in Surveys and Related Material	297	(1)
Origins and Implications of Country Masculinity Differences	297	(38)
The Masculinity Societal Norm	297	(1)
Masculinity and Femininity in the Family	298	(5)
Masculinity, Schools, and Educational Systems	303	(2)
Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles	305	(5)
Masculinity and Consumer Behavior	310	(1)
Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace	311	(6)
Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Priorities	317	(4)
Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Mores	321	(1)
Masculinity and Sexual Behavior	322	(5)
Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion	327	(4)
Masculinity and Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Factors	331	(1)
Masculinity and (Pre)Historical Factors	331	(2)
The Future of Masculinity/Femininity Differences	333	(2)
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter	335	(6)
Computing MAS for Old and New Cases	335	(1)
Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions	335	(1)
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey	335	(2)
Results of Other Studies Correlated With MAS	337	(2)
MAS Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators	339	(1)
Trends in MAS	340	(11)
Notes	341	(29)
7. Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation	351	(1)
Summary of This Chapter	351	(1)
East Versus West	351	(4)
Cultural Biases in the Researchers' Minds	351	(1)
The Chinese Value Survey	352	(1)
Long-Term Orientation as a Fifth Dimension	353	(2)
Measuring and Validating National Differences in Long-Term Orientation	355	(4)
A Long-Term Orientation Index for 23 Countries	355	(1)
Replications of the Measurement of Long-Term Orientation	355	(1)
Validating LTO Against Other Studies of Values	355	(3)
LTO and Savings Rates: Read's Study	358	(1)
Summary of Validations and Connotations of the Long-Term Orientation Index Found in Surveys and Related Material	359	(1)
Implications of Country Long-Term Orientation Differences	359	(11)
LTO and Family, Social Relationships, and Work	359	(3)
LTO and Ways of Thinking	362	(3)
LTO and Economic Growth	365	(3)
Long- and Short-Term Orientation in the Hindu and Muslim Worlds	368	(1)
African Values: A New Dimension?	369	(1)
The Future of Long-Term Orientation	370	(3)
Notes	370	(45)
8. Cultures in Organizations	373	(1)
Summary of This Chapter	373	(1)
Organizations and National Cultures	373	(18)
There Are No Universal Solutions to Organization and Management Problems	373	(2)
The Functioning of Organizations	375	(3)
Culture and Organization Theories: Nationality Constrains Rationality	378	(3)
Planning, Control, and Accounting	381	(3)
Corporate Governance	384	(1)
Motivation and Compensation	385	(3)
Leadership and Empowerment	388	(2)
Management Development and Organization Development	390	(1)
Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives	391	(1)
Organizational Cultures	391	(24)
The "Organizational Culture" Construct	391	(2)
Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures	393	(2)
The IRIC Organizational Culture Research Project	395	(2)
Dimensions of Organizational Cultures	397	(3)
Validating the Practice Dimensions	400	(5)
Organizational Subcultures	405	(3)
The Usefulness of the Organizational Culture Construct	408	(2)
How Universal Are the Six Organizational Culture Dimensions?	410	(1)
Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures	411	(2)
Implications of the Level of Analysis: Gardens, Bouquets, and Flowers	413	(1)
Occupational Cultures	414	(9)
Notes	415	(39)
9. Intercultural Encounters	423	(1)
Summary of This Chapter	423	(1)
Intercultural Communication and Cooperation	423	(6)
General Principles	423	(2)
Language and Discourse	425	(1)
Culture Shock and Expatriate Failure	425	(2)
Training in Intercultural Competence	427	(2)
Political Issues	429	(11)
Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees	429	(2)
International Politics and International Organizations	431	(4)
Intercultural Negotiations	435	(2)
Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation	437	(3)
Multinational Business	440	(11)
The Functioning of Multinational Business Organizations	440	(5)
International Acquisitions, Mergers, and Joint Ventures	445	(3)
International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior	448	(3)
Schools, Tourism, and a Look Ahead	451	(3)
Intercultural Encounters in Schools	451	(1)
Intercultural Encounters in Tourism	452	(1)
The Influence of New Technology	453	(1)
Cultural Relativism, Convergence, and Divergence	453	(8)
Notes	454	(12)
10. Using Culture Dimension Scores in Theory and Research	461	(1)
Summary of This Chapter	461	(1)
Applications of the Dimensional Model	461	(6)
The Fortunes of Continued Research in Six Areas	461	(1)
Fields of Application	462	(1)
Replications and Their Pitfalls	463	(1)
Extensions to New Countries	464	(1)
Using the Dimensional Model as a Paradigm	465	(1)
Closing Remarks	466	(1)
Notes	466	(1)
Appendixes
Appendix 1	467	(8)
Questions From the IBM Attitude Survey Questionnaire Referred to in This Book
Appendix 2	475	(8)
Country Scores on A, B, and C Questions (except A5-A32 and C1-C8)
Appendix 3	483	(8)
Standardized Country and Occupation Scores for Work Goals (questions A5-18 and C1-C8)
Appendix 4	491	(8)
Replicating the IBM-Style Cross-National Survey
Appendix 5	499	(4)
Summary of Country Index Scores (including additions)
Appendix 6	503	(18)
Summary of Significant Correlations of Country Index Scores With Data From Other Sources
Appendix 7	521	(2)
Two Case Studies From the IRIC Organizational Cultures Research Project
Appendix 8	523	(2)
The Author's Values
References	525	(44)
Name Index	569	(16)
Subject Index	585	(11)
About the Author	596