The Ecology of Plants

by Gurevitch, Jessica; Fox, Gordon A.

• ISBN13: 9780878932948
• ISBN10: 0878932941
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-03-01
• Publisher: Sinauer Associates is an imprint of Oxford University Press

Summary

Now in full color, this thoroughly revised and updated second edition of The Ecology of Plants incorporates many new illustrations and hundreds of new references. The text covers a range of topics that you might find in a general ecology textbook, but with the focus on the interactions between plants and their environment over a range of scales. Some of the subjects covered are unique to plants, such as photosynthesis and the ecology of plant--soil interactions; other topics, such as resource and mate acquisition, emphasize the distinctive ways plants (in contrast to mobile animals) deal with their environments. The book is unusual in emphasizing the importance of evolutionary and other historical processes for current ecology. Throughout the text, human environmental influences are discussed. While the book is written for an undergraduate college course in plant ecology, the engaging style, thorough coverage of the field, and contemporary perspective make it accessible and useful to others as well, from graduate students in conservation biology to evolutionary biologists and resource managers.

For Instructors

Instructor's Resource CD: This resource includes all the textbook's figures, photographs, and tables, available as JPEGs (high- and low-resolution) and in PowerPoint.

Author Biography

Jessica Gurevitch is Professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolution at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. She earned a B.S. in Biological Sciences (Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics) at Cornell University, and a Ph.D. in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Arizona. Research projects currently underway include empirical, experimental and modeling approaches to studying pine demography, and experimental studies of plant invasions in forests.

Samuel M. Scheiner is currently working for the U.S. federal government. Previously he was on the faculties of Arizona State University, Northern Illinois University, and the University of Arizona. He earned his B.A., M.S., and Ph.D., all in Biology, from the University of Chicago. Dr. Scheiner's research has been involved equally with plants and animals, the theoretical and the empirical, including population genetics, physiological ecology, population biology, and macroecology. Currently, his research centers on three issues: phenotypic plasticity, measuring natural selection, and both theoretical and empirical work on large-scale patterns of species diversity.

Gordon A. Fox is Associate Professor of Biology at the University of South Florida. He earned a B.A. in History at the University of California, Berkeley and a Ph.D. in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Arizona, where he researched the ecology, genetics, and evolution of annual plants in the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts. His postdoctoral work at the University of California, Davis concentrated on theoretical population genetics. His current research interests include: population dynamics of plants in a stochastic world; the ecology of populations in fire-prone regions; the ecology and evolution of reproductive timing in plants; and applications of population ecology to conservation of endangered plants.

Table of Contents

The Science of Plant Ecology	1	(16)
Ecology as a Science	1	(8)
The Genesis of Scientific Knowledge	2	(2)
Objectivity, Subjectivity, Choice, and Chance in Scientific Research	4	(1)
Experiments: The Heart of Research	4	(4)
Testing Theories	8	(1)
Specific Results versus General Understanding	9	(1)
Science and Other Ways of Knowing, Revisited	9	(1)
Scale and Heterogeneity	9	(2)
The Structure and History of Plant Ecology	11	(2)
Questions for Further Study	13	(1)
Additional Readings	13	(4)
PART I THE INDIVIDUAL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
Photosynthesis and the Light Environment	17	(26)
The Process of Photosynthesis	18	(2)
Photosynthetic Rates	20	(5)
Limitations Caused by Light Levels	20	(3)
Limitations on Carbon Uptake	23	(1)
Variation in Photosynthetic Rates Within and Between Habitats	24	(1)
The Three Photosynthetic Pathways	25	(5)
C3 Photosynthesis	25	(1)
C4 Photosynthesis	25	(1)
Box 2A Photorespiration	26	(1)
Box 2B Stable Isotopes and Photosynthesis	27	(2)
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM Photosynthesis)	29	(1)
Evolution of the Three Photosynthetic Pathways	30	(2)
Phylogeny of the Photosynthetic Pathways	30	(1)
Photosynthesis through Evolutionary Time	31	(1)
Growth Form, Phenology, and Distribution of C3, C4, and CAM Plants	32	(4)
Growth Forms and Habitats	32	(2)
Phenology	34	(1)
Geographic Distributions	34	(2)
Adaptations to the Light Environment	36	(5)
Sun and Shade Leaves	36	(1)
Species' Adaptations to High-Light and Low-Light Habitats	37	(1)
Box 2C Leaf Iridescence and Structural Coloration	38	(1)
Do Sun and Shade Adaptations Exist Within Species?	39	(1)
Day Length: Responses and Adaptations	40	(1)
Summary	41	(1)
Questions for Further Study	41	(1)
Additional Readings	41	(2)
Water Relations and Energy Balance	43	(28)
Adapting to Life on Land	44	(1)
Water Potential	44	(1)
The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum	45	(3)
Box 3A Measuring Photosynthesis, Transpiration, and Water Potential	46	(2)
Transpiration and the Control of Water Loss	48	(13)
Strategies for Coping with Different Water Availability Conditions	49	(1)
Water Use Efficiency	50	(1)
Whole-Plant Adaptations to Low Water Availability	50	(2)
Physiological Adaptations	52	(2)
Anatomical and Morphological Adaptations	54	(7)
The Energy Balance of Leaves	61	(7)
Radiant Energy	62	(1)
Box 3B Why the Sky Is Blue and the Setting Sun Is Red	63	(1)
Conduction and Convection	64	(1)
Latent Heat Exchange	65	(1)
Putting It All Together: Leaf and Whole-Plant Temperature	65	(2)
Adaptations to Extreme Temperature Regimes	67	(1)
Summary	68	(1)
Questions for Further Study	69	(1)
Additional Readings	69	(2)
Soils, Mineral, Nutrition, and Belowground Interactions	71	(30)
Soil Composition and Structure	71	(9)
Soil Texture	72	(2)
Soil pH	74	(1)
Horizons and Profiles	75	(2)
Origins and Classification	77	(3)
Organic Matter and the Role of Organisms	80	(1)
Water Movement within Soils	80	(2)
Plant Mineral Nutrition	82	(10)
The Stoichiometry of Nutrients	82	(1)
Nitrogen in Plants and Soils	83	(1)
Biological Nitrogen Fixation	84	(2)
Box 4A Symbioses and Mutualisms	86	(2)
Phosphorus in Soils	88	(1)
Nutrient Use Efficiency	88	(2)
Leaf Life Span and Evergreen versus Deciduous Leaves	90	(2)
Mycorrhizae	92	(4)
Major Groups of Mycorrhizae	92	(1)
The Role of Mycorrhizae in Plant Phosphorus Nutrition	93	(1)
Other Functions of Mycorrhizae	94	(1)
Orchids and Their Mycorrhizal Associations	95	(1)
Mutualism or Parasitism?	95	(1)
Effects of Mycorrhizae on Plant Interactions	95	(1)
Summary	96	(1)
Questions for Further Study	97	(1)
Additional Readings	97	(4)
PART II POPULATIONS AND EVOLUTION
Population Structure, Growth, and Decline	101	(28)
Some Issues in the Study of Plant Population Growth	102	(1)
Population Structure	103	(3)
Some Population Structure Issues Specific to Plants	105	(1)
Sources of Population Structure	106	(1)
Studying Population Growth and Decline	106	(13)
Life Cycle Graphs	107	(1)
Box 5A Life Table Calculations	108	(1)
Box 5B Borrowing the Mark-Recapture Method from Animal Ecology	109	(1)
Box 5C Constructing Matrix Models	110	(1)
Matrix Models	110	(1)
Box 5D Demography of an Endangered Cactus	111	(1)
Box 5E Multiplying a Population Vector by a Matrix	111	(1)
Analyzing Matrix Models	112	(1)
But Real Plants Live in Variable Environments	113	(1)
Lifetime Reproduction: The Net Reproductive Rate	113	(1)
Reproductive Value: The Contribution of Each Stage to Population Growth	113	(1)
Box 5F Reproductive Value	114	(1)
Box 5G How Do Changes in the Transition Probabilities Affect the Population Growth Rate?	115	(1)
Sensitivity and Elasticity	115	(1)
Life Table Response Experiments	116	(1)
Age and Stage, Revisited	117	(1)
Other Approaches to Modeling Plant Demography	118	(1)
Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants	119	(3)
Random Variation in Population Growth and Decline	122	(4)
Causes of Random Variation	122	(1)
Long-Term Growth Rates	123	(2)
Studying Variable Population Growth	125	(1)
Summary	126	(1)
Questions for Further Study	127	(1)
Additional Readings	127	(2)
Evolutionary Processes and Outcomes	129	(26)
Natural Selection	130	(3)
Variation and Natural Selection	130	(1)
The Factors Necessary for Natural Selection	131	(2)
Heritability	133	(4)
Resemblance among Relatives	133	(1)
Partitioning Phenotypic Variation	134	(1)
Box 6A A Simple Genetic System and the Resemblance of Relatives	135	(1)
Genotype-Environment Interactions	136	(1)
Gene-Environment Covariation	136	(1)
Patterns of Adaptation	137	(5)
Heavy-Metal Tolerance	137	(3)
Adaptive Plasticity	140	(2)
Levels of Selection	142	(1)
Other Evolutionary Processes	143	(2)
Processes that Increase Variation	143	(1)
Processes that Decrease Variation	143	(2)
Variation among Populations	145	(1)
Ecotypes	145	(4)
Speciation	149	(2)
Adaptation and Speciation through Hybridization	151	(1)
Summary	152	(1)
Questions for Further Study	153	(1)
Additional Readings	153	(2)
Growth and Reproduction of Individuals	155	(30)
Plant Growth	155	(2)
Ecology of Growth	157	(3)
Plant Architecture and Light Interception	157	(1)
Growth of Clonal Plants	158	(2)
Plant Reproduction	160	(3)
Vegetative Reproduction	160	(1)
Seeds Produced Asexually	161	(1)
Sexual Life Cycles of Plants	161	(2)
Pollination Ecology	163	(9)
Wind Pollination	163	(2)
Attracting Animal Visitors: Visual Displays	165	(1)
Attracting Animal Visitors: Floral Odors and Acoustic Guides	166	(2)
Limiting Unwanted Visits	168	(1)
Pollination Syndromes	168	(1)
Box 7A Specialized Plants and Pollinators	169	(1)
Aquatic Plants and Pollination	170	(1)
Box 7B Some Complex Plant-Pollinator Interactions	171	(1)
Who Mates with Whom?	172	(7)
Plant Gender	172	(1)
Box 7C Pollination Experiments	173	(1)
Competition for Pollinators and among Pollen Grains	173	(1)
Pollen Dispersal and Its Consequences	174	(2)
Assortative Mating	176	(1)
Frequency-Dependent Selection	176	(1)
Factors that Shape Plant Mating Systems	177	(1)
Applications of Pollination and Mating System Ecology	178	(1)
The Ecology of Fruits and Seeds	179	(4)
Seed Dispersal Patterns	180	(3)
Seed Banks	183	(1)
Summary	183	(1)
Questions for Further Study	184	(1)
Additional Readings	184	(1)
Plant Life Histories	185	(20)
Size and Number of Seeds	185	(3)
Life History Strategies	188	(7)
Life Span	189	(1)
r- and K-selection	190	(1)
Grime's Triangular Model	191	(2)
Demographic Life History Theory	193	(1)
Reproductive Allocation	193	(1)
Difficulties in Measuring Trade-Offs	194	(1)
Variation among years	195	(3)
Consequences of Variable Environments	195	(1)
Seed Germination	195	(1)
Masting	196	(2)
Phenology: Within-Year Schedules of Growth and Reproduction	198	(3)
Vegetative Phenology	198	(1)
Reproductive Phenology: Abiotic Factors	199	(2)
Reproductive Phenology: Biotic Factors	201	(1)
Summary	201	(1)
Questions for Further Study	202	(1)
Additional Readings	202	(3)
PART III COMMUNITIES AND THEIR CAUSES
Community Properties	205	(20)
What Is a Community?	205	(7)
The History of a Controversy	206	(1)
Box 9A Communities, Taxa, Guilds, and Functional Groups	207	(3)
A Modern Perspective on the Issues in Contention	210	(1)
Are Communities Real?	211	(1)
Box 9B A Deeper Look at Some Definitions: Abiotic Factors and Emergent Properties	212	(1)
Describing Communities	212	(9)
Species Richness	213	(2)
Diversity, Evenness, and Dominance	215	(2)
Sampling Methods and Parameters for Describing Community Composition	217	(2)
Physiognomy	219	(2)
Long-Term Studies	221	(1)
Summary	221	(1)
Box 9C The Long-Term Ecological Research Network	222	(1)
Questions for Further Study	222	(1)
Additional Readings	223	(2)
Competition and Other Interactions Among Plants	225	(32)
Competition at the Level of Individuals	226	(7)
Seedlings: Density, Size, Inequality, and Timing of Emergence	226	(3)
Seedlings: Density and Mortality	229	(1)
Mechanisms of Competition for Resources	230	(2)
Size and Resource Competition	232	(1)
Experimental Methods for Studying Competition	233	(4)
Greenhouse and Garden Experiments	233	(1)
Box 10A How Competition Is Measured, and Why That Matters	234	(2)
Field Experiments	236	(1)
From Interspecific Competition to Allelopathy to Facilitation	237	(7)
Trade-offs and Strategies	237	(2)
Competitive Hierarchies	239	(1)
Allelopathy	240	(2)
Facilitation	242	(2)
Modeling Competition and Coexistence	244	(4)
Equilibrium Models	245	(1)
Nonequilibrium Approaches to Modeling Competition	246	(2)
Effects of Competition on Species Coexistence and Community Composition	248	(1)
Competition along Environmental Gradients	249	(6)
Conceptual Models of Competition in Habitats with Differing Productivities	249	(2)
Experimental Evidence	251	(2)
Evidence from Research Syntheses	253	(2)
Resolution of Differing Results	255	(1)
Summary	255	(1)
Questions for Further Study	256	(1)
Additional Readings	256	(1)
Herbivory and Plant-Pathogen Interactions	257	(26)
Herbivory at the Level of Individuals	258	(1)
Herbivory and Plant Populations	259	(4)
Herbivory and Spatial Distribution of Plants	260	(1)
Granivory	261	(1)
Biological Control	261	(2)
Effects of Herbivory at the Community Level	263	(4)
Consequences of Herbivore Behavior	263	(1)
Apparent Competition	263	(1)
Introduced and Domesticated Herbivores	264	(1)
Effects of Native Herbivores	265	(2)
Generality	267	(1)
Plant Defenses against Herbivory	267	(7)
Physical Defenses	267	(2)
Plant Secondary Chemistry	269	(2)
Constitutive versus Induced Defenses	271	(1)
Evolutionary Consequences of Plant-Herbivore Interactions	272	(2)
Parasitic Plants	274	(1)
Pathogens	275	(5)
Effects of Disease on Individual Plants	275	(1)
Box 11A Effects of Plant Disease on Humans: Potato Blight and the Irish Potato Famine	276	(1)
Physiological and Evolutionary Responses to Pathogens	277	(1)
Effects of Pathogens at the Population and Community Level	278	(1)
More Complex Interactions	279	(1)
Summary	280	(1)
Questions for Further Study	280	(1)
Additional Readings	280	(3)
Disturbance and Succession	283	(24)
Theories of the Mechanisms of Succession	284	(1)
Disturbance	285	(8)
Gaps	286	(1)
Fire	287	(4)
Wind	291	(1)
Water	292	(1)
Animals	292	(1)
Earthquakes and Volcanoes	293	(1)
Disease	293	(1)
Humans	293	(1)
Colonization	293	(1)
Determining the Nature of Succession	294	(8)
Interaction between Methodology and Understanding	294	(3)
Mechanisms Responsible for Successional Change	297	(3)
The Predictability of Succession	300	(1)
Community Restoration	301	(1)
Primary Succession	302	(1)
Climax Revisited	303	(1)
Summary	304	(1)
Questions for Further Study	305	(1)
Additional Readings	305	(2)
Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity	307	(20)
Dominance	307	(2)
Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior?	308	(1)
Abundance Curves	308	(1)
Rarity and Commonness	309	(4)
The Nature of Rarity	309	(1)
Patterns of Rarity and Commonness	310	(1)
Causes of Rarity and Commonness	311	(2)
Invasive Species and Community Susceptibility to Invasion	313	(4)
Why Do Some Species Become Invasive?	314	(1)
What Makes a Community Susceptible to Invasion?	315	(2)
Abundance and Community Structure	317	(4)
Productivity and Diversity	318	(2)
Niche Differentiation, Environmental Heterogeneity, and Diversity	320	(1)
Gaps, Disturbance, and Diversity	321	(1)
Effects of Increasing Diversity	321	(3)
Testing the Effects of Diversity on Ecosystems	322	(1)
Diversity and Stability	323	(1)
Regional Processes	323	(1)
Summary	324	(1)
Questions for Further Study	324	(1)
Additional Readings	324	(3)
PART IV ECOSYSTEMS AND LANDSCAPES
Ecosystem Processes	327	(26)
Biogeochemical Cycles: Quantifying Pools and Fluxes	328	(2)
The Global Water Cycle	330	(2)
Carbon in Ecosystems	332	(10)
Productivity	332	(3)
Methods for Estimating Productivity	335	(2)
Decomposition and Soil Food Webs	337	(3)
Carbon Storage	340	(1)
Models of Ecosystem Carbon Cycles	341	(1)
Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle at Ecosystem and Global Levels	342	(5)
Nitrogen Fixation	342	(1)
Other Sources of Nitrogen Input to Living Organisms	343	(1)
Nitrogen Mineralization	344	(1)
Denitrification and Leaching of Nitrogen	345	(1)
Decomposition Rates and Nitrogen Immobilization	345	(1)
Plant Uptake of Nitrogen	346	(1)
Phosphorus in Terrestrial Ecosystems	347	(1)
Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling and Plant Diversity	348	(1)
Ecosystem Processes for Some Other Elements	348	(2)
Sulfur	348	(1)
Calcium	349	(1)
Box 14A Serpentine Soils	349	(1)
Summary	350	(1)
Questions for Further Study	351	(1)
Additional Readings	351	(2)
Communities in Landscapes	353	(16)
Comparing Communities	353	(4)
Non-numerical Techniques	354	(1)
Univariate Techniques	354	(1)
Multivariate Techniques	354	(3)
Landscape Patterns	357	(7)
Ordination: Describing Patterns	357	(1)
Determining Causes of Patterns	358	(2)
Types of Data	360	(1)
Classification	360	(3)
Box 15A Differentiating Vegetation Based on Spectral Quality	363	(1)
Views on Continuous versus Discrete Landscapes	364	(1)
Landscape Diversity	364	(2)
Differentiation Diversity	364	(1)
Pattern Diversity	365	(1)
Summary	366	(1)
Questions for Further Study	366	(1)
Additional Readings	367	(2)
Landscape Ecology	369	(22)
Spatial Patterns	370	(5)
Six Types of Species-Area Curves	371	(2)
Defining Patches	373	(1)
Quantifying Patch Characteristics and Interrelationships	373	(1)
The Effects of Spatial Patterns on Ecological Processes	374	(1)
Scale	375	(4)
Definitions and Concepts	375	(2)
Process and Scale	377	(1)
Spatial and Ecological Scale	377	(1)
Quantifying Aspects of Spatial Pattern and Scale	378	(1)
Toward a Theoretical Basis for Landscape Patterns: Island Biogeography Theory	379	(5)
Metapopulation Theory	380	(1)
Box 16A Metapopulation Models	381	(1)
Metapopulation Patterns	381	(2)
Species-Time-Area Relationships	383	(1)
Landscape Ecology and Conservation	384	(3)
Reserve Design	384	(1)
Fragmentation	385	(1)
Edges, Connectivity, and Nestedness	386	(1)
Summary	387	(1)
Questions for Further Study	388	(1)
Additional Readings	388	(3)
PART V GLOBAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES
Climate and Physiognomy	391	(26)
Climate and Weather	391	(1)
Temperature	392	(6)
Short-Term Variation in Radiation and Temperature	393	(4)
Long-Term Cycles	397	(1)
Precipitation	398	(13)
Global Patterns	399	(1)
Box 17A The Coriolis Effect	400	(3)
Continental-Scale Patterns	403	(3)
Seasonal Variation in Precipitation	406	(1)
The El Nino Southern Oscillation	407	(3)
Predictability and Long-Term Change	410	(1)
Plant Physiognomy across the Globe	411	(4)
Forests	411	(1)
Tree Line	412	(1)
Grasslands and Woodlands	413	(1)
Shrublands and Deserts	414	(1)
Summary	415	(1)
Questions for Further Study	416	(1)
Additional Readings	416	(1)
Biomes	417	(28)
Categorizing Vegetation	417	(3)
Converging Biomes and Convergent Evolution	420	(3)
Moist Tropical Forests	423	(2)
Tropical Rainforest	423	(2)
Tropical Montane Forest	425	(1)
Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands	425	(3)
Tropical Deciduous Forest	426	(1)
Thorn Forest	427	(1)
Tropical Woodland	427	(1)
Temperate Deciduous Forest	428	(1)
Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands	429	(3)
Temperate Rainforest	429	(2)
Temperate Evergreen Forest	431	(1)
Temperate Woodland	432	(1)
Taiga	432	(1)
Temperate Shrubland	433	(2)
Grasslands	435	(3)
Temperate Grassland	435	(1)
Tropical Savanna	436	(2)
Deserts	438	(1)
Hot Desert	438	(1)
Cold Desert	439	(1)
Alpine and Arctic Vegetation	439	(3)
Alpine Grassland and Shrubland	439	(2)
Tundra	441	(1)
Summary	442	(1)
Questions for Study and Thought	443	(1)
Additional Readings	443	(2)
Regional and Global Diversity	445	(24)
Large-Scale Patterns of Species-Richness	446	(1)
General Factors Affecting Diversity	447	(5)
Levels of Explanation	447	(1)
Null Models	448	(1)
The Importance of Available Energy	449	(3)
Contributions of α, β, and γ Diversity	452	(1)
Diversity along Ecological Gradients	452	(1)
Productivity and Scale	453	(2)
Diversity along Latitudinal Gradients	455	(2)
An Array of Explanations	455	(2)
The Role of β Diversity	457	(1)
Continental Differences	457	(2)
Other Geographic Patterns	459	(2)
Species Diversity and Patterns of Overlap	459	(1)
Endemism, Centers of Diversification, and Isolation	460	(1)
Relationships between Regional and Local Diversity	461	(3)
Box 19A The Fynbos and the Cape Region of Africa	462	(2)
Noisy Data and Limits to Methodology	464	(2)
Summary	466	(1)
Questions for Further Study	466	(1)
Additional Readings	467	(2)
Paleoecology	469	(16)
The Paleozoic Era	470	(3)
The Mesozoic Era	473	(2)
The Dominance of Gymnosperms	473	(1)
The Breakup of Pangaea and the Rise of the Angiosperms	474	(1)
The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary	475	(1)
The Cenozoic Era	475	(1)
Paleoecology Methods	476	(1)
The Recent Past	477	(7)
At the Glacial Maximum	478	(2)
Glacial Retreat	480	(2)
Climatic Fluctuations in the Recent Past	482	(2)
Summary	484	(1)
Questions for Further Study	484	(1)
Additional Readings	484	(1)
Global Change: Humans and Plants	485	(30)
Carbon and Plant-Atmosphere Interactions	486	(2)
The Global Carbon Cycle	486	(1)
Direct Effects of Increasing CO2 on Plants	487	(1)
Anthropogenic Global Climate Change	488	(10)
The Greenhouse Effect	488	(2)
Global Climate Change: Evidence	490	(3)
Global Climate Change: Predictions	493
Box 21A Modeling Climate	492	(3)
Biotic Consequences of Climate Change	495	(3)
Anthropogenic Effects on the Global Carbon Cycle	498	(4)
Deforestation	498	(1)
Fossil Fuel Combustion	499	(2)
Box 21B Daily Human Activities and CO2 Generation	501	(1)
Acid Precipitation and Nitrogen Deposition	502	(2)
Declining Global Biodiversity and Its Causes	504	(8)
Habitat Fragmentation and Loss	504	(4)
Other Threats to Rare and Common Species in a Range of Communities	508	(1)
Invasive Species as Threats to Biodiversity	509	(1)
Human Populations and Land Use Patterns	509	(3)
A Ray of Hope?	512	(1)
Summary	512	(1)
Questions for Further Study	513	(1)
Additional Readings	513	(2)
Appendix: A Statistics Primer	515	(4)
Glossary	519	(11)
Photo Credits	530	(1)
Literature Cited	531	(23)
Index	554