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Preface | p. xii |
What Are the Issues in the Economics of Gender? | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 3 |
What is the economics of gender? | p. 3 |
Why study the economics of gender? | p. 4 |
How are men and women different? | p. 5 |
Focus: Gender, gender, everywhere | p. 6 |
Why are men and women different? | p. 6 |
Focus: Why are women underrepresented in science? | p. 9 |
Critiques of the economic approach | p. 14 |
Communication between academic disciplines | p. 16 |
Focus: Gender and metaphor in the language of economics | p. 17 |
Summary | p. 18 |
Endnotes | p. 18 |
Further reading | p. 21 |
Discussion questions | p. 21 |
The repercussions of scarcity | p. 22 |
Opportunity cost | p. 22 |
The marginal vs. total distinction | p. 23 |
Markets | p. 24 |
Focus: The intrinsic value paradox: Are diamonds and water like lawyers and child care workers? | p. 26 |
Noncompetitive markets-monopoly and monopsony | p. 27 |
Policy application: Effects of a minimum, wage | p. 30 |
Endnotes | p. 31 |
Discussion questions | p. 32 |
Gender Differences in the U.S. Economy | p. 33 |
How much do men and women work? | p. 33 |
Focus: Will men be tomorrow's "second sex"? | p. 38 |
Where do women and men work? | p. 39 |
How much money do men and women make? | p. 42 |
How well-off are women and men? | p. 45 |
Focus: Gender differences in charitable contributions | p. 47 |
How do men and women allocate their time? | p. 50 |
Policy application: Unemployment policy | p. 51 |
Summary | p. 53 |
Endnotes | p. 53 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 55 |
Discussion questions | p. 56 |
Why Do Women and Men Work? | p. 59 |
The Household as Economic Unit | p. 61 |
Household and marriage formation | p. 61 |
Forces determining the division of labor | p. 67 |
Who to marry and how to share | p. 73 |
Focus: Is bachelorhood a pitiable state? | p. 76 |
How is power distributed in households? | p. 77 |
Focus: The economics of domestic violence | p. 78 |
Household and marriage dissolution | p. 79 |
Focus: Prenuptial and postnuptial agreements | p. 80 |
Policy application: No-fault divorce | p. 81 |
Summary | p. 83 |
Endnotes | p. 84 |
Further reading | p. 88 |
Discussion questions | p. 88 |
Consumption and production relationships | p. 89 |
Gains from trade | p. 90 |
Budget constraints and indifference curves | p. 92 |
Substitutes and complements | p. 94 |
Endnote | p. 96 |
Discussion questions | p. 96 |
Labor Force Participation: Analysis of Trends | p. 97 |
Trends in labor force participation | p. 97 |
What has caused these trends? | p. 105 |
Explanations of the rise in women's labor force participation | p. 107 |
Focus: What is higher-quality housework? | p. 112 |
Explanations of the fall in men's labor force participation | p. 115 |
Trends in hours worked | p. 117 |
Conclusions about economic factors affecting labor force participation | p. 119 |
Extensions of the simple economic model | p. 119 |
Focus: Changes in volunteerism rates | p. 121 |
Predicting changes in the labor market | p. 122 |
Policy application: Subsidized child care | p. 123 |
Summary | p. 126 |
Endnotes | p. 126 |
Further reading | p. 129 |
Discussion questions | p. 130 |
Labor supply | p. 130 |
The decision to work | p. 130 |
Policy application: An earnings tax | p. 137 |
Endnotes | p. 139 |
Discussion questions | p. 139 |
Labor Force Participation: Consequences for Family Structure | p. 140 |
Demographic trends | p. 140 |
The question of causality | p. 144 |
Focus: Early marriage as an element of Utopia | p. 146 |
New household and family patterns | p. 153 |
Changes in well-being of households and families | p. 154 |
Focus: The price of success? Higher education and family life | p. 157 |
Focus: Teenage mothers and the cycle of poverty | p. 158 |
Policy application: Regulation of fertility-access to contraception and abortion | p. 160 |
Summary | p. 163 |
Endnotes | p. 163 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 167 |
Discussion questions | p. 167 |
Policy Application: Welfare Reform | p. 169 |
What is welfare? | p. 169 |
Who is poor? | p. 169 |
Effects of welfare programs | p. 171 |
Approaches to welfare reform | p. 175 |
Focus: Making noncustodial parents pay | p. 178 |
Focus: The Free the Children antipoverty program | p. 179 |
Recent welfare reform in the U.S. | p. 180 |
Endnotes | p. 182 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 183 |
Discussion questions | p. 184 |
The Earnings Puzzle: Why Do Women Earn Less Than Men? | p. 187 |
Gender Segregation in the Workplace | p. 189 |
The situation in various occupations | p. 189 |
Focus: Directors and officers at Fortune 500 companies | p. 192 |
Interpretation of large changes in the proportion of women in some occupations | p. 192 |
Segregation index values | p. 195 |
Cross-cultural segregation data | p. 199 |
Theories of why segregation occurs and persists | p. 202 |
Focus: Blind selection processes | p. 205 |
The relationship between segregation and earnings | p. 205 |
Focus: University coaches' salaries | p. 209 |
Effects of workforce policies on segregation | p. 209 |
Policy application: Affirmative action | p. 213 |
Summary | p. 215 |
Endnotes | p. 215 |
Further reading | p. 219 |
Discussion questions | p. 220 |
Causes of Earnings Differences: Human Capital | p. 222 |
What is human capital? | p. 222 |
How human capital investments affect earnings | p. 223 |
Focus: The "mommy track" controversy | p. 228 |
The significance of human capital theory for occupational choice | p. 229 |
Focus: Is there gender bias in educational testing? | p. 231 |
Evidence of effects of human capital differences on gender earnings differences | p. 232 |
Focus: Is the classroom climate chilly for women? | p. 237 |
Policy implications of human capital theory for the gender earnings gap | p. 238 |
Policy application: Nontraditional job training programs | p. 238 |
Summary | p. 239 |
Endnotes | p. 239 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 242 |
Discussion questions | p. 242 |
Regression analysis | p. 243 |
Endnotes | p. 247 |
Discussion questions | p. 247 |
Causes of Earnings Differences: Compensating Differentials | p. 248 |
What is a compensating differential? | p. 248 |
How do compensating differentials affect earnings? | p. 249 |
Focus: Death on the job | p. 251 |
Sorting of workers across firms and industries | p. 252 |
Gender differences in preferences for job characteristics | p. 253 |
Focus: Gender differences in "selling out" | p. 256 |
Policy implications of compensating differentials for the gender earnings gap | p. 260 |
Policy application: Workplace regulations | p. 260 |
Summary | p. 262 |
Endnotes | p. 262 |
Further reading | p. 264 |
Discussion questions | p. 264 |
Causes of Earnings Differences: Discrimination | p. 265 |
How economists define discrimination | p. 265 |
Overview of evidence of workplace discrimination | p. 266 |
Focus: The difficulties of filing discrimination charges | p. 267 |
Focus: The Sears case | p. 273 |
How do discrimination theories explain gender workplace differences? | p. 274 |
Models involving tastes for discrimination | p. 275 |
Models of discrimination that do not involve prejudice | p. 278 |
Can discrimination exist in equilibrium? | p. 284 |
Feedback effects from labor market discrimination | p. 285 |
Devices for combating discrimination | p. 285 |
Focus: Women don't ask? Improving negotiation skills | p. 287 |
Policy application: Anti-discrimination legislation | p. 288 |
Summary | p. 289 |
Endnotes | p. 289 |
Further reading | p. 294 |
Discussion questions | p. 294 |
Policy Application: Comparable Worth | p. 296 |
What is comparable worth? | p. 296 |
The pros and cons of comparable worth | p. 297 |
Focus: Comparable worth for professors | p. 303 |
How would comparable worth be implemented nationally? | p. 304 |
Estimation of potential comparable worth benefits and costs | p. 305 |
Evaluation of actual comparable worth policies | p. 307 |
The need for policies to correct discrimination | p. 309 |
Endnotes | p. 310 |
Further reading | p. 312 |
Discussion questions | p. 313 |
Cross-Societal Comparisons: Are Gender Differences the Same Everywhere? | p. 315 |
Industrialized Capitalist Societies | p. 317 |
Overview of levels and trends in these countries | p. 317 |
Focus: Institutionalized pay discrimination in New Zealand | p. 323 |
Focus: Swedish hiring quotas and Norwegian boardroom quotas | p. 326 |
Examples from particular countries | p. 327 |
Focus: Comparing tax system effects for Sweden and Germany | p. 331 |
Social policies across advanced industrialized countries | p. 332 |
Policy application: Child allowances | p. 335 |
Summary | p. 335 |
Endnotes | p. 336 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 339 |
Discussion questions | p. 340 |
Socialist and Cooperative Societies | p. 341 |
Why these societies might be expected to display more gender equality | p. 341 |
Evaluation of actual practices | p. 342 |
Focus: Causes of the progress of women in the Soviet Union | p. 347 |
Examples from particular countries | p. 348 |
Focus: How many "missing girls" are there in China? | p. 349 |
Focus: Vietnam as a paradigm for transition? | p. 354 |
Summary | p. 354 |
Endnotes | p. 354 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 357 |
Discussion questions | p. 357 |
Nonindustrialized Traditional Societies | p. 359 |
Overview of levels and trends in these countries | p. 359 |
Methods for evaluating the extent and value of work | p. 367 |
Focus: Time use in Togo | p. 368 |
Level of gender inequality by type of society | p. 369 |
Focus: Flexible gender roles in American Indian societies | p. 370 |
Focus: Sex ratios across societies | p. 373 |
Examples from particular countries | p. 373 |
Policy application: Rural-urban migration disincentives | p. 376 |
Summary | p. 377 |
Endnotes | p. 377 |
Further reading | p. 380 |
Discussion questions | p. 381 |
Effects of the Development Process on Gender Differences | p. 383 |
What is development? | p. 383 |
Focus: Two Brazilian factories | p. 388 |
Development effects on family structure | p. 389 |
Focus: The marriage market in Singapore | p. 390 |
Development policy topics | p. 391 |
Focus: Bank loans in Bombay | p. 394 |
Policy application Foreign aid practices | p. 395 |
Summary | p. 396 |
Endnotes | p. 396 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 398 |
Discussion questions | p. 399 |
Historical Comparisons: How Do Gender Differences Vary over Time? | p. 401 |
Gender Differences in U.S. Economic History | p. 403 |
Overview by era | p. 403 |
Focus: Mill towns in New England | p. 404 |
Long-run trends in labor markets | p. 407 |
Focus: Bank tellers and the tipping phenomenon | p. 411 |
Policies affecting men and women differently | p. 414 |
Focus: The cigar industry | p. 416 |
Policy application: Marriage bars | p. 417 |
Summary | p. 418 |
Endnotes | p. 418 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 421 |
Discussion questions | p. 422 |
Race, Ethnicity, and Class Considerations in Interpreting Gender Differences | p. 423 |
Gender differences across groups | p. 423 |
Different conceptual frameworks for analyzing group differences | p. 426 |
Focus: Does U.S. immigration law hurt women? | p. 427 |
Displaced populations-American Indians | p. 427 |
Repercussions of slavery: the African-American experience | p. 428 |
Focus: Black progress in corporate America | p. 430 |
Immigrant experiences | p. 431 |
Group membership considerations in formulation of policy | p. 434 |
Focus: Does Title IX discriminate against black men? | p. 435 |
Policy application: Quotas in educational programs and hiring | p. 436 |
Summary | p. 437 |
Endnotes | p. 437 |
Further reading | p. 439 |
Discussion questions | p. 439 |
Policy Proposals | p. 441 |
Summary of policy approaches to gender issues | p. 441 |
General precepts for policy formulation | p. 442 |
Focus: Why don't women get tenure? | p. 448 |
Focus: Part-time lawyers | p. 449 |
Policy application: Family-friendly benefits | p. 451 |
Summary | p. 451 |
Endnotes | p. 451 |
Further reading and statistical sources | p. 453 |
Discussion questions | p. 453 |
Author index | p. 455 |
Subject index | p. 468 |
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