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Preface
Part 1: Foundations of e-Learning and the Science of Instruction
Chapter 1: E-Learning: Promise and Pitfalls
What Is E-Learning?
The Evolution of e-Learning for Training
Is e-Learning Better?
The Promises of e-Learning
The Pitfalls of e-Learning
E-Learning Architectures
Twenty-Five Years Later
Chapter 2: How People Learn from e-Courses
How Do People Learn?
Guiding Cognitive Processing During Learning
Core Goals in Instructional Design for e-Learning
How e-Lessons Affect Learning
Chapter 3: Evidence-Based Practice
What Is Evidence-based Practice?
Rationale for Evidence-based Practice
Three Approaches to Research on Instructional Effectiveness
What to Look for in Experimental Comparisons
What Are Boundary Conditions?
What Is a Meta-Analysis?
Limits of Experimental Research
Where Can You Find Relevant Research?
The Evolution of Evidence-based Practice
What We Don’t Know About Evidence-based Practice
Part 2: How to Leverage Visuals and Words in e-Learning.
Chapter 4: Applying the Multimedia Principle: Use Words and Graphics Rather Than Words Alone
Do Visuals Make a Difference?
Multimedia Principle: Include Both Words and Graphics
Some Ways to Select Graphics to Promote Learning
Psychological Reasons for the Multimedia Principle
Evidence for Using Words and Pictures
When to Use Animations
How to Optimize Learning from Graphics
What We Don’t Know About Visuals
Chapter 5: Applying the Contiguity Principle: Align Words to Corresponding Graphics
Spatial Contiguity Principle: Place Printed Words Near Corresponding Graphics
Violations of Spatial Contiguity
Psychological Reasons for the Spatial Contiguity Principle
Evidence for the Spatial Contiguity Principle
Temporal Contiguity Principle: Synchronize Spoken Words with Corresponding Graphics
Violations of Temporal Contiguity Principle
Psychological Reasons for the Temporal Contiguity Principle
Evidence for the Temporal Contiguity Principle
What We Don’t Know About Contiguity
Chapter 6: Applying the Signaling Principle: Use Verbal and Visual Cues to Direct Attention
What is Signaling?
How does Signaling work?
Evidence for Benefits of Signaling
Principle 1: Use Text Summaries and Headers to Signal Learning Content
Principle 2: Use Text Phrases to Explicitly Direct Attention to Relevant Content
Principle 3: Use Emphasis Cues such as Color and Intonation
Principle 4: Use Graphic Cues such as Arrows and Pointers
Principle 5: Use Anti-cueing in Animations to Signal Less Salient Visual Elements
Signaling: The Bottom Line
What We Don’t Know About Signaling
Chapter 7: Applying the Modality Principle: Present Words as Audio Narration Rather than On-screen Text
Modality Principle: Present Words as Speech rather than On-screen Text
Psychological Reasons for the Modality Principle
Evidence for Using Spoken Rather than Printed Text
When Audio is Not Effective: Boundary Conditions of the Modality Principle
What We Don’t Know About the Modality Principle
Chapter 8: When to Add Text to Audio Narration: Applying the Redundancy Principle
What is the Redundancy Principle?
Psychological Reasons for Redundancy Principle
Evidence for Omitting Redundant On-screen Text
Add On-screen Text to Narration in Special Situations
The Bottom Line
What We Don’t Know About Redundancy
Chapter 9: Applying the Coherence Principle: Adding Extra Material Can Hurt Learning
Principle 1: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Words
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Words in e-Learning
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Interest
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added to Expand on Key Ideas
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Words Added for Technical Depth
Principle 2: Avoid E-Lessons with Extraneous Graphics
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Graphics in e-Learning
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Graphics Added for Interest
Boundary Conditions for Seductive Details
Evidence for Using Simpler Visuals
Can Interesting Graphics Ever Be Helpful? Guidelines for Emotional Design
Principle 3: Avoid e-Lessons with Extraneous Audio
Psychological Reasons to Avoid Extraneous Audio in e-Learning
Evidence for Omitting Extraneous Audio
What We Don’t Know About Coherence
Part 3: How to Promote Skill Building in e-Learning.
Chapter 10: Engagement in e-Learning: Activities for Promoting Generative Learning
What is Engagement?
Engagement and Generative Processing
Behavioral Versus Psychological Engagement
When Behavioral Activity Impedes Learning
Three Engagement Activities that Promote Generative Processing
The Bottom Line to Engagement in e-Learning
What We Don’t Know About Engagement
Chapter 11: Leveraging Examples in e-Learning
What is Example-based Instruction?
The Psychology of Example-based Instruction
Evidence for the Benefits of Example-based Instruction
How to Optimize the Benefits of Example-based Instruction
Principle 1: Provide at Least Two Examples (with paired practice assignments) when the Lesson Content Is Complex.
Principle 2: Promote Self-explanations to Stimulate Deeper Processing of Examples.
Principle 3: Fade from Worked Examples to Problems as Expertise Builds.
Principle 4: Apply the Multimedia Principles to the Design of Your Examples.
Principle 5: Consider Using Video Examples for Complex Tasks
Principle 6: Optimize Example-based Instruction for Strategic Tasks
What We Don’t Know About Worked Examples
Chapter 12: Does Practice Make Perfect?
What Is Practice in e-Learning?
Is Practice a Good Investment?
Principle 1: Add Sufficient Practice Interactions to Achieve the Objective
Principle 2: Make Sure Practice Mirrors the Job
Principle 3: Provide Effective Feedback on Practice Performance
Principle 4: Distribute and Mix Practice Among Learning Events
Principle 5: Arrange Practice that Increases in Challenge as Learners Progress
Principle 6: Provide Scaffolding to Support Guided Practice When Needed
Principle 7: Apply Multimedia Principles in Designing Feedback
What We Don’t Know about Practice
Part 4: How to Organize Content in e-Learning
Chapter 13: Organizing Instruction: Applying the Segmenting and Pretraining Principles
What Is the Segmenting Principle?
What Is the Pretraining Principle?
Psychological Reasons for the Pretraining Principle
Managing Essential Overload
What We Don’t Know About Segmenting and Pretraining
Chapter 14: Who’s in Control? Guidelines for e-Learning Navigation
Learner Control VS Program Control
Do Learners Make Good Instructional Decisions?
The Psychology of Learner Decisions
Four Principles for Learner Control
Principle 1: Give Experienced Learners Control in e-learning
Principle 2: Make Important Instructional Events the Default
Principle 3: Give Pacing Control to All Learners
Principle 4: Provide Guidance in Open-ended e-Learning Environments
The Bottom Line
What We Don’t Know About Learner Control
Part 5: How to Leverage Social Cues in e-Learning
Chapter 15: Applying the Personalization Principle: Use Conversational Style, Polite Wording, Friendly Voice, On-Screen Agents, and Social Presence in Video Lessons
Personalization Principle 1: Use Conversational Rather than Formal Style
Psychological Reasons for the Personalization Principle
Evidence for Using a Conversational Style
Personalization Principle 2: Use Polite Wording Rather than Direct Wording
Evidence for Polite Wording
Personalization Principle 3: Use Friendly Human Voice Quality for Narrations
Evidence for Friendly Voice
Can On-Screen Agents Promote Learning in Asynchronous e-Learning?
How Can Instructors in Video Lessons Leverage Personalization?
What We Don’t Know about Personalization
Chapter 16: Online Collaborative Learning
What is Collaborative Learning?
The Psychology of Collaborative Learning
What is Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL)?
Principle 1: Design Tasks and Team Assignments to Foster Interdependence
Principle 2: Optimize Group Size, Prior Knowledge and Collaboration Experience
Principle 3: Consider Tradeoffs Between Synchronous Versus Asynchronous Collaboration
Principle 4: Maximize Social Presence in Online Collaborative Environments
Principle 5: Use Scripts to Structure Team Processes
What We Don’t Know About Online Collaborative Learning
Part 6: Special Applications of e-Learning
Chapter 17: E-Learning to Build Thinking Skills
What Are Thinking Skills?
What to Teach: Focused Target Skills Versus Improving the Mind in General
Where to Teach: Domain General Versus Domain-specific Thinking Skills
How to Teach: Expert Modeling with Learner Practice Versus Direct Instruction
Can Thinking Skills Be Trained?
Principle 1: Build Explicit Instruction to Teach Specific Job-relevant Thinking Skills
Principle 2: Incorporate Online Simulations of Authentic Work Scenarios
Principle 3: Identify Job-Specific Thinking Processes
Teaching Thinking Skills: The Bottom Line
What We Don’t Know About Teaching Thinking Skills
Chapter 18: Designing Effective Instructional Video
The Challenge of Instructional Video
Historical Foundations of Instructional Video
Uses of Instructional Video
Principle 1: Record a Demonstration Video from a First-Person Perspective
Principle 2: Have the Instructor Draw on the Board While Lecturing
Principle 3: Embed Generative Activities During Breaks in the Video
Principle 4: Add Subtitles for Learners in a Second Language
Principle 5: Have the Instructor Exhibit Positive Voice and Gestures
Principle 6: Have the Instructor Use Pointing and Eye Gaze to Direct Attention
Principle 7: Avoid Overuse of Talking Heads or Static Instructor Images
Principle 8: Apply Multimedia Design Principles
What We Don’t Know About Instructional Video
Chapter 19: Learning with Computer Games
Do Games Have a Place in the Serious Business of Training?
Which Features Improve a Computer Game's Effectiveness?
What Are the Cognitive Consequences of Playing Off-the-Shelf Computer Games?
Are Computer Games More Effective than Conventional Media?
What Makes an Effective Game for Skill Training?
What Makes an Ineffective Game for Skill Training?
What We Don't Know About Learning with Computer Games
Chapter 20: Immersive Virtual Reality for Instruction
The Promise and Pitfalls of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality
What Is Immersive Virtual Reality?
Three Levels of Immersion
Is Immersive Virtual Reality Better for Learning than Traditional Media?
When to use Immersive Virtual Reality Training Environments
How to use Immersive Virtual Reality for Learning
What We Don’t Know about Immersive Virtual Reality
Chapter 21: Applying the Multimedia Guidelines
How Strong is the Evidence for the Multimedia Principles?
E-Learning Guidelines Checklists
Trends in Multimedia Design Research
The Future of Multimedia Design Research
In Conclusion
Glossary
References
Acknowledgements
About the Authors
Index
