Electrochemical Methods for Neuroscience

by Michael; Adrian C.

• ISBN13: 9780849340758
• ISBN10: 0849340756
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-12-13
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Since the first implant of a carbon microelectrode in a rat 35 years ago, there have been substantial advances in the sensitivity, selectivity and temporal resolution of electrochemical techniques. Today, these methods provide neurochemical information that is not accessible by other means. The growing recognition of the versatility of electrochemical techniques indicates a need for a greater understanding of the scientific foundation and use of these powerful tools.Electrochemical Methods for Neuroscience provides an updated summary of the current, albeit evolving, state of the art and lays the scientific foundation for incorporating electrochemical techniques into on-going or newly emerging research programs in the neuroscience disciplines. With contributions from pioneers in the field, the text outlines the applications and benefits of a wide range of electrochemical techniques. It explores the methodology behind the acquisition of neurochemical and neurobiological data through continuous amperometry, fast scan cyclic voltammetry, high-speed chronoamperometry, ion-selective microelectrodes, enzyme based microelectrodes, and in vivo voltammetry with telemetry. The text also introduces emerging concepts in the field such as the correlation of electrochemical recordings with information obtained from patch clamp, electrophysiological, and behavioral techniques.By presenting up-to-date information on the growing collection of electrochemical methods, microsensors, and research techniques, Electrochemical Methods for Neuroscience assists seasoned researchers and newcomers to the field in making sound decisions about adopting the most appropriate of these tools for their future research objectives.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Electrochemical Methods in Neuroscience	1
Laura M. Borland and Adrian C. Michael
Introduction	1
A Bit of Electrochemical History: Early Lessons in Selectivity	2
In Vivo Electrochemistry: The Benefits of Size and Speed	3
The Scope of Electrochemistry in the Neurosciences	4
Electrochemistry Fundamentals	7
Chronoamperometry	8
A Comment about Charging Currents	10
Other Potential Step Methods	10
Cyclic Voltammetry	11
Amperometry	12
Conclusion	12
References	13
Chapter 2 Rapid Dopamine Release in Freely Moving Rats	17
Donita L. Robinson and R. Mark Wightman
The Phenomenon of Dopamine Transients	17
Physiology of Dopamine Transients	18
Advances in Recording Technique	19
Measurement of Dopamine Transients: Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry	20
Electrode Preparation	20
Electrode Calibration	21
Surgical Preparation	21
Electrochemical Measurements	22
Instrumentation and Software	22
Experimental Protocol	23
Data Analysis	25
Verification of Recording Site	28
Naturally Occurring Dopamine Transients	28
Environmental Stimuli	28
Basal Conditions	29
Pharmacology	29
Self-Administration of Reinforcers	30
Function of Dopamine Transients	31
References	32
Chapter 3 Presynaptic Regulation of Extracellular Dopamine as Studied by Continuous Amperometry in Anesthetized Animals	35
Marianne Benoit-Marand, Marie-Francoise Suaud-Chagny, and François Gonon
Electrically Evoked Dopamine Release Monitored by Continuous Amperometry	36
Introduction	36
The Quest for Speed	36
Principle of Continuous Amperometry	36
Methods: Carbon Fiber Electrodes and Potentiostats	36
Validity and Field of Application	37
Monitoring Dopamine in the Presence of Other Oxidizable Compounds	37
Amperometric Monitoring of Dopamine Release Evoked by Brief Electrical Stimulation	38
Field of Application	38
Comparison with Other Approaches	39
Comparison with In Vivo Microdialysis	39
Comparison with Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry	39
Comparison with Other Electrochemical Techniques	39
Characteristics of Dopaminergic Transmission	40
Dopaminergic Transmission Is Extrasynaptic but Local	40
Release and Elimination of Dopamine from the Extracellular Space	41
Release and Diffusion of Dopamine in the Extracellular Fluid to the Electrode	41
Elimination of Released Dopamine by Reuptake	41
Monitoring the Evoked Dopamine Overflow with Carbon Fiber Electrodes	41
Technical Recommendations	42
Experimental Protocols	42
Carbon Fiber Electrodes	42
Implantation of Carbon Fiber Electrodes In Vivo	43
Reference Electrode	43
In Vitro Calibration of Carbon Fiber Electrodes	43
Analysis of the Data	44
Direct Estimate of Dopamine Release and of Dopamine Uptake	44
Mathematical Models	44
Conclusions	44
References	45
Chapter 4 Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry of Dopamine and Serotonin in Mouse Brain Slices	49
Carrie E. John and Sara R. Jones
Introduction	49
Advantages of the Use of Mouse Brain Slices	50
Methodology for Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry in Mouse Brain Slices	51
Electrode Fabrication and Calibration	51
FSCV Data Acquisition	52
Brain Slice Preparation	53
Electrically Stimulated Monoamine Release	54
Electrical Stimulation	54
Advantages of the Use of Electrical Stimulation	55
Experimental Design	55
Data Analysis	55
Uptake Rate Determination	55
Regional Variation in Uptake Rates	57
Monoamine Uptake Inhibitors and Releasers	58
Mechanisms of Action	58
Using FSCV to Evaluate Changes in Monoamine Dynamics in Response to Uptake Inhibitors and Releasers	58
Concluding remarks	60
Acknowledgments	60
References	60
Chapter 5 High-Speed Chronoamperometry to Study Kinetics and Mechanisms for Serotonin Clearance In Vivo	63
Lynette C. Daws and Glenn M. Toney
Introduction: Serotonin and the Serotonin Transporter	63
Voltammetric Techniques used to Study Kinetics of Serotonin Clearance in Brain	64
High-Speed Chronoamperometry	64
CFE Calibration	65
High-Speed Chronoamperometry Coupled to Microejection of Serotonin	66
Surgical Procedures	68
Kinetics of Serotonin Clearance	68
Serotonin Signal Parameters	68
Brain Region Dependency	69
Transporter Promiscuity	69
Physiological Relevance of Applying Micromolar Concentrations of 5-HT	73
Biological Significance of Transporter Promiscuity	73
Receptor Regulation of the Serotonin Transporter	74
5-HT 1B Receptor	74
Alpha2-Adrenoceptor	75
Adenosine Receptor	75
Significance of Receptor-Mediated Regulation of 5-HTT	77
Concluding Remarks	77
Acknowledgments	77
References	77
Chapter 6 Using High-Speed Chronoamperometry with Local Dopamine Application to Assess Dopamine Transporter Function	83
Joshua M. Gulley, Gaynor A. Larson, and Nancy R. Zahniser
Introduction	84
Importance of Dopamine and the Dopamine Transporter (DAT)	84
Non-Electrochemical Methods Used to Measure DAT Number and Function	86
Radioligand Binding and Antibodies	86
DA Uptake Assays	86
DAT-Associated Currents	87
In Vivo Microdialysis	87
Electrochemical Methods Used to Measure In Vitro and In Vivo DAT Function	88
Use of High-Speed Chronoamperometry (HSC) with Local DA Application to Measure In Vivo DAT Function in Discrete Brain Regions of Anesthetized Rats and Mice	89
Methods	89
HSC	89
Electrode Construction, Calibration, and Assembly with Micropipettes	89
Surgical Procedures	91
Experimental Details	92
Data Analysis	92
Results	94
Summary of Evidence That This Approach Measures DAT Function	95
Rapid Regulation of DAT Can Influence Measures of Exogenous DA Clearance	95
Additional Applications of HSC with Local DA Application to Measure DAT Function	96
In Vitro Recording in Acutely Prepared Brain Slices	96
In Vivo Chronic Recording in Freely Behaving Rats	97
Future Directions in Using HSC to Measure DAT Function	98
Acknowledgments	98
References	98
Chapter 7 Determining Serotonin and Dopamine Uptake Rates in Synaptosomes Using High-Speed Chronoamperometry	103
Xiomara A. Perez, Amanda J. Bressler, and Anne Milasincic Andrews
Introduction: History of Investigating Monoamine Neurotransmitter Uptake	104
Chronoamperometry Methods for Determining Uptake in Synaptosomes	106
Mouse Models of Altered Uptake	106
Carbon Fiber Microelectrode Construction	107
Preparation of Synaptosomes	107
Chronoamperometry and Electrode Calibration	107
HPLC Analysis of Synaptosomal Filtrates	108
Data Analysis and Statistics	108
Characterization of Microelectrode Responses	109
Effects of Oxygen on Synaptosomal Uptake of Serotonin	109
Effects of Stirring on Synaptosomal Uptake of Serotonin	109
Effects of Uptake Inhibitors on Synaptosomal Uptake of Serotonin	110
Inactivation of Serotonin Transporter Expression Results in a Gene Dose-Dependent Reduction in Serotonin Uptake	111
Uptake Kinetics of Serotonin by Chronoamperometry	111
Chronoamperometry versus Radiochemical Methods: Why Such Discrepancies in Uptake Rates?	113
Determination of Dopamine Uptake in a-Synuclein Transgenic Mice by Chronoamperometry	115
Conclusions	117
Acknowledgments	119
References	119
Chapter 8 Using Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry to Investigate Somatodendritic Dopamine Release	125
Sarah Threlfell and Stephanie J. Cragg
What Is Somatodendritic Dopamine Release?	126
Midbrain Dopamine Neurons Release Dopamine from Their Somatodendrites	126
The Functions and Sites of Action of Somatodendritic Dopamine	126
Methodological Approaches to the Study of Somatodendritic Dopamine Release	126
Electrochemical and Other Approaches to Dopamine Detection	126
Co-Detection of DA and 5-HT in Midbrain	127
FCV Waveform Choice	127
Species Variation in 5-HT Interference	129
Characteristic Voltammetric and Pharmacological Differences	130
In Vitro Methods for FCV in Midbrain	130
Slice Preparations and Species	130
Solutions	131
Scan Waveforms	131
Carbon-Fiber Microelectrodes: Preparation, Calibration	133
Choice of Stimulation Parameters	133
Concerns in Signal Identification	135
What Is the Mechanism of Release?	136
Anatomical Evidence	136
Mechanistic Evidence	136
Regulation of Somatodendritic Dopamine Signals by Extracellular Geometry and Uptake	137
Volume Transmission and Uptake	137
Regional Kinetic Distinctions	138
Neuromodulation of Somatodendritic Release	139
Autoreceptor Regulation	139
Heteroreceptor and Other Neuromodulatory Regulation	140
Summary and Conclusions	141
Acknowledgments	142
References	142
Chapter 9 From Interferant Anion to Neuromodulator: Ascorbate Oxidizes Its Way to Respectability	149
George V. Rebec
Introduction	149
Basic Chemistry	150
Isolation and Tissue Availability	150
Oxidation	151
Ascorbate Electrochemistry	151
Methodology	152
Extracellular Changes	155
Glutamate-Related Mechanisms of Striatal Ascorbate Release	156
Ascorbate Modulation of Glutamate-Evoked Neuronal Signaling	157
Ascorbate and Huntington's Disease	158
HD and Transgenic Mice	158
Ascorbate Dysregulation in HD Striatum	158
Summary and Conclusion	161
Acknowledgments	161
References	161
Chapter 10 Biophysical Properties of Brain Extracellular Space Explored with Ion-Selective Microelectrodes, Integrative Optical Imaging and Related Techniques.	167
Sabina Hrabetová and Charles Nicholson
Introduction: Extracellular Space	168
Brief History	169
Volume Fraction and Width	169
Hindrance and Tortuosity	170
Bulk Flow	170
Volume Transmission and Drug Delivery	170
Tools and Methods to Study Extracellular Space in Real Time	171
Diffusion Measurements Reveal Extracellular Space Properties	171
The Diffusion Equation and Its Meaning	171
Choice of Molecular Probes for Extracellular Space	173
Delivery of Molecular Probes: Iontophoresis and Pressure Ejection	175
Iontophoresis	176
Pressure Ejection	178
Detection of Molecular Probes: Ion-Selective Microelectrodes, Integrative Optical Imaging and Carbon-Based Microelectrodes	179
Ion-Selective Microelectrodes	179
Integrative Optical Imaging	181
Carbon-Based Microelectrodes	182
Diffusion Measurements Using Dual Microdialysis Probes	184
Choice of Brain Tissue Preparation	185
Tissue Slices and Slabs	185
Effects of Boundary Conditions on Diffusion Measurements in Brain Tissue	185
In Vivo Preparations	190
Specialized Software for Point-Source Diffusion Analysis	191
Software for Intophoresis and Pressure Ejection-VOLTORO, Walter and Wanda	191
Software for Integrative Optical Imaging Vida and Ida	191
Diffusion Properties of Brain Extracellular Space	192
Brain under Physiological Conditions	192
Brain during Reversible Osmotic Challenge	193
Brain in Pathological States	194
Monte Carlo Simulation of Diffusion in 3D Media	194
MCell and DReAMM	195
Three-Dimensional Media Composed of Convex Cells	195
Dwell-Time Diffusion Theory	196
Three-Dimensional Media Containing Concave Cells and Lakes	197
Future Directions	198
References	199
Chapter 11 Hydrogen Peroxide as a Diffusible Messenger: Evidence from Voltammetric Studies of Dopamine Release in Brain Slices	205
Margaret E. Rice, Marat V. Avshalumov, and Jyoti C. Patel
Introduction	206
Overview	206
Physiology of DA Release: Why It Can Be Detected in the Extracellular Space	206
A Brief History of In Vivo and In Vitro Voltammetry	208
Advantages of Brain Slices to Study DA Release	209
Voltammetric Methods	210
Comparison of Voltammetric Techniques	210
Constant Potential Amperometry	211
Chronoamperometry	211
Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry	212
Electrodes	214
Brain Slice Methodology	214
aCSF Composition for Healthy Slices	216
Species Selection	217
Plane of Slicing	217
Stimulating and Recording DA Release in Brain Slices	219
Signal versus Interference	220
Regulation of Striatal DA Release by H2O2	221
Endogenous H2O2 Inhibits Axonal DA Release	222
Potential Sources of H2O2 Generation	222
Regulation of Axonal DA Release by Glutamate Acting at AMPA Receptors Requires H2O2	222
Activity-Dependent H2O2 Generation in Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons	224
H2O2 Acts via KATp Channels to Inhibit DA Release	225
Summary and Future Directions for Studies of H2O2 as a Neuromodulator	225
Acknowledgments	226
References	226
Chapter 12 In Vivo Voltammetry with Telemetry	233
Paul A. Garris, Phillip G. Greco, Stefan G. Sandberg, Greg Howes, Sirinun Pongmaytegul, Byron A. Heidenreich, Joseph M. Casto, Robert Ensman, John Poehlman, Andy Alexander, and George V. Rebec
Introduction	234
Overview	234
Monitoring Neural Activity	234
Voltammetry	236
Principles of FSCV at a CFM	236
Applications of FSCV at a CFM	238
Principles of Telemetry	240
Resources	240
Theory and Basic Instrumentation	240
Digital Telemetry at 2.4 GHz	242
Wireless Neural Monitoring and Control	244
Scope	244
Electrophysiology	244
Voltammetry	245
Electrical Stimulation	245
Real-Time Animal Telemetry	245
Instrument Overview	245
Establishment of Proof of Principle	247
Preliminary Findings in Freely Moving Animals	248
Future Directions	250
The Smaller the Better	250
Multifunctional Wireless Instrument	250
Portable Microsensor Measurement System	251
Conclusions	253
Acknowledgments	253
References	253
Chapter 13 Oxidative Stress at the Single Cell Level	261
Christian Amatore and Stéphane Arbault
Introduction	261
Oxidative Stress Processes	261
Electroactive Species Implicated in Oxidative Stress	265
Direct Electrochemical Detection of Oxidative Release on Single Cells	266
Microelectrode Detection of Superoxide and Hydrogen Peroxide
Released by Living Cells	268
Detection of Superoxide by Carbon and Gold Microelectrodes on Phagocytes and Vascular Cells	268
Detection of Superoxide by Cytochrome c Modified Gold Electrodes on Neuronal Cells	270
Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide by Platinized Carbon Fiber Microelectrodes on Skin Fibroblasts	272
Microelectrode Detection of Nitric Oxide and Peroxynitrite Releases by Living Cells	273
Detection of Nitric Oxide by Porphyrin Modified Microelectrodes at Single Cells from Cardiac Endothelium	273
Detection of Peroxynitrite by Modified Microelectrodes during Ischemia of Endothelial Cells from Heart	275
Detection of Peroxynitrite by Platinized Microelectrodes on Single Human Fibroblasts	276
Conclusions and Perspectives	278
References	279
Chapter 14 Electrochemistry at the Cell Membrane/Solution Interface	285
Nathan Wittenberg, Marc Maxson, Daniel Eves, Ann-Sofie Cans, and Andrew G. Ewing
Electrochemistry at the Cell Membrane/Solution Interface	286
Basics of Electrodes for Single Cell Measurements	286
Electrode Fabrication and Testing	286
Basic Amperometry	287
Exocytosis at Adrenal Cells	289
Amperometric Detection of Release via the Fusion Pore	289
Insulin Release from Pancreatic Beta Cells	290
Exocytosis at Mast Cells	291
Pheochromocytoma (PC12) Cells, Undifferentiated and Differentiated	291
Release from the Cell Body of a Processed Neuron in an Animal System	291
Release of Small Amounts of Catecholamine from the Leech Neuron	292
Release from Mammalian Cells	292
Kiss-and-Run Measurements	292
Measurements of Cholesterol in the Cell Membrane	292
Other Techniques	292
Patch Amperometry	292
Quartz Crystal Microbalance Measurements	294
Electrochemistry of Material Released from Cells in Microvials	295
Electrochemistry at Bilayer Membranes	297
Artificial Cells (Liposomes) as Models of Exocytosis	297
Kinetics of Membrane Distention during Artificial Cell Exocytosis	297
Modeling Release via the Fusion Pore (Lipid Nanotube)	299
Artificial Synapses with Liposome Models	301
Model of the Synapse	301
Quantitative Issues and Flow Effects in the Synapse	303
Electrochemical Methods Applied to Neuroscience	305
Stages of Release during Exocytosis Elucidated with Amperometry	305
Theories on the Forces Involved in Opening the Fusion Pore	306
Effects of Snare Protein Manipulation	306
Blocking Ryanodine Channels Affects Exocytosis	307
Regulation of Insulin Exocytosis from Pancreatic Beta Cells	307
Vesicle Size Changes with Messenger Amount	308
Summary and Future Perspectives	308
Acknowledgments	308
References	309
Chapter 15 The Patch Amperometry Technique: Design of a Method to Study Exocytosis of Single Vesicles	315
Gregor Dernick, Guillermo Alvarez de Toledo, and Manfred Lindau
Introduction: Capacitance Measurements of Membrane Fusion with Amperometric Detection of Released Molecules	316
Patch Amperometry	317
Patch Amperometry Requires Reversed Patch Clamp Electrode Configuration	317
Equipment and Setup	317
Data Acquisition	317
Capacitance Measurements	318
Amperomety	322
Microscopy	322
Design of the Electrode Holders	322
Manually Adjustable Electrode Holder	323
Motorized Electrode Holder	324
Patch Pipettes	326
Carbon Fiber Electrode Fabrication	326
Carbon Fiber Fabrication Setup	326
Carbon Fiber Pulling	327
Testing the CFE in the Patch Amperometry Configuration	328
Recording Chamber Design	329
Patching of Chromaffin Cells	329
Capacitance Calibration	330
Analysis of Exocytotic Events	331
Vesicle Capactiance and Fusion Pore Conductance	331
Release of Molecules	333
Quantal Size, Vesicle Size, and the Fusion Pore	334
Summary and Discussion	334
Acknowledgments	334
References	335
Chapter 16 Amperometric Detection of Dopamine Exocytosis from Synaptic Terminals	337
Roland G.W. Staal, Stephen Rayport, and David Sulzer
Introduction to Dopamine Neurotransmission	337
Electrochemical Detection of DA	338
Quantal DA Release	338
Source of DA Neurons: Selection of Animals and Brain Regions	339
Methods	340
Preparation of Glass Coverslips	341
Preparation of Pipette "Tech-Tips" for Triturating Cells	342
SYLGARD Circles	342
Glia (Using Rat Pups)	342
DA Neurons	343
Media and Reagents	349
Carbon Fiber Amprometry	349
Electrode Fabrication	349
Testing and Selection of Electrodes	350
Recording	350
Analysis	351
References	351
Chapter 17 Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy as a Tool in Neuroscience	353
Albert Schulte and Wolfgang Schuhmann
Introduction	353
Operational Principles of the Amperometric Feedback and the Generator/Collector Mode of SECM	356
Constant-Height Mode SECM Measurement at Individual Cells	359
Constant-Distance Mode SECM at Individual Cells and Cell Populations	363
Conclusion and Future Aspects	366
References	367
Chapter 18 Principles, Development and Applications of Self-Referencing Electrochemical Microelectrodes to the Determination of Fluxes at Cell Membranes	373
Peter J.S. Smith, Richard H. Sanger, and Mark A. Messerli
Introduction	374
Self-Referencing: Principles	376
Self-Referencing: Potentiometric Ion-Selective Electrodes (ISE)	378
Types of Potentiometric Ion-Selective Microelectrodes	381
Choosing an Electrolyte	383
Self-Referencing: Amperometric Microelectrodes	383
Types of Amperometric Microelectrodes	384
Calculation of Flux	384
Setting the Frequency and Distance of Translation	385
Electrode Construction	385
Electrode Construction: Potentiometric	386
Electrode Construction: Amperometric	388
Making an Oxygen Electrode	388
Making a Hydrogen Peroxide Electrode	388
Making an Ascorbate Electrode	389
Making a Nitric Oxide Electrode	389
Making a Glucose (Enzyme-Assisted) Electrode	390
Making a Glutamate Electrode	390
Response Times	390
Response Times: ISEs	391
Response Times: Amperometric	391
Response Times: Interferents	392
Spatial Resolution	392
Problems and Pitfalls	393
Potentiometric: Selectivity	393
Amperometric: Selectivity	393
Mixing	393
Positional Artifacts	394
Positional Artifacts: Potentiometric	394
Positional Artifacts: Amperometric	394
Voltage Fields	394
Use of Buffers	395
Equipment and Software	396
Preamplifiers	396
Voltage Head Stage Potentiometric	396
Current Head Stage-Amperometric	396
Amplifier	396
Motion Control	397
Software	397
Applications	397
Neural Repair and Disease	397
Microglia	397
Neural Tube Defects	398
Sensory Neurobiology	398
Hair Cells	398
Vision	398
Olfaction	398
Additional Electrically Active Cells	399
Neurons	399
Muscle	399
Pancreatic 13-cells	399
Additional Pumps and Channels	400
Apoptosis and Volume Changes	400
Acidification and Alkalinization	400
Conclusions	401
Acknowledgments	401
References	401
Chapter 19 Second-by-Second Measures of L-Glutamate and Other Neurotransmitters Using Enzyme-Based Microelectrode Arrays	407
Kevin N. Hascup, Erin C. Rutherford, Jorge E. Quintero, B. Keith Day, Justin R. Nickell, Francois Pomerleau, Peter Huettl, Jason J. Burmeister, and Greg A. Gerhardt
Introduction	408
Principles of In Vivo Electrochemistry	408
Enzyme-Based Multisite Microelectrode Arrays	409
Fabrication	409
Multisite Microelectrode Array Designs	412
Headstage/Recording System	413
Microelectrode Preparation	413
Cleaning Procedures	414
Exclusion Layer Coatings	414
Nafion Exclusion Layer	414
1,3-Phenylenediamine	415
Enzyme Layer Coatings	416
Oxidase Enzymes	416
L-Glutamate Oxidase Coating Procedure	416
Calibration	418
Calibration Preparation	418
Calibration Procedures	419
Microelectrode Calibration Criteria	419
Glass Micropipettes for Local Drug Delivery	421
Ag/AgCl Reference Electrode	423
Signal Analysis	423
Amperometric Recordings Utilizing Self-Referencing Microelectrodes	425
Importance of Self-Referencing Microelectrode Arrays	425
Phasic Release of Neurotransmitters	427
Tonic or Basal Release of Neurotransmitters	428
Application to Biological Systems	429
In Vitro Systems	429
Cell Culture Techniques	429
Brain Slice Techniques	430
In Vivo Anesthetized Animal Recordings	433
Anesthetized Rats and Mice	433
Anesthetized Rhesus Monkeys	435
Awake, Freely Moving Rats and Mice	437
Implantation and Recording Procedure	439
Chronic Implantation Histopathology	443
Future Directions	443
Eight Site Microelectrode Arrays	443
Using Microelectrode Microdrives for Chronic Implantations	445
Telemetry	446
Deep Brain Structure Enzyme-Based Microelectrodes	446
Acknowledgments	446
Appendix A Preparing Glutamate Microelectrodes	447
References	448
Chapter 20 Telemetry for Biosensor Systems	451
David A. Johnson and George S. Wilson
Introduction	451
Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry	452
FSCV System Requirements	452
In-Vivo Electrochemical Sensors	453
Biosensor System Requirements	454
General Design Considerations	454
Electronics	455
Power Sources	455
RF Telemetry	458
Protocol Independent Transmitters and Receivers	458
ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4)	458
Bluetooth	459
WiFi (IEEE 802.11)	459
Ultra Wideband	459
Radio Frequency Identification	459
Interference	460
Mesh Networks	460
Antenna Design	461
IR Telemetry	461
Design Examples	461
FSCV	461
Selective Amperometric Biosensors	462
Conclusions	462
References	462
Chapter 21 The Principles, Development and Application of Microelectrodes for the In Vivo Determination of Nitric Oxide	465
Michael J. Serpe and Xueji Zhang
Introduction	465
NO Microelectrodes	466
Clark Type NO Microelectrodes	467
Metalloporphyrin and Metallophthalocyanine Modified NO Microelectrodes	468
Combination NO Microelectrodes	469
Other NO Microelectrodes	470
Calibration of NO Microelectrodes	470
Calibration Based on Chemical Generation of NO	470
Calibration Using an NO Standard Solution	471
Calibration Based on Decomposition of SNAP	471
Characterization of NO Microelectrodes	473
Sensitivity and Detection Limit	473
Selectivity	473
Response Time	474
Selected NO Microelectrode Applications	474
Concluding Remarks	481
Acknowledgments	481
References	482
Chapter 22 In Vivo Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry of Dopamine near Microdialysis Probes	489
Hua Yang and Adrian C. Michael
Introduction	489
Procedures for Voltammetry near Microdialysis Probes	491
Voltammetric Electrodes and Procedures	491
Dialytrode Design	491
Surgical Procedures	491
Dual Electrode Voltammetry	492
Voltammetry near Microdialysis Probes	492
Results	492
Dual Electrode Recording	492
Probe Implantation Affects the Voltammetric Responses	494
Discussion and Implications	496
Acknowledgments	499
References	500
Index	503