Elements of Modern X-ray Physics

by Jens Als-Nielsen (Ø; rsted Laboratory, Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen Univ., Denmark); Des McMorrow (Risø; National Laboratory, Denmark)

• ISBN13: 9780471498582
• ISBN10: 0471498580
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-03-01
• Publisher: WILEY

Summary

The availability of intense X-ray beams from synchroton storage rings has revolutionised the field of X-ray science. This is illustrated by the cover pictures: Von Laue's first observation of X-ray diffraction from a single crystal of ZnS used an exposure time of around 1000 seconds, whereas the diffraction from a single crystal of myoglobin using modern X-ray synchroton radiation was obtained within the duration of a single pulse lasting only 0.00000000001 seconds. In this book the basics of X-ray physics, as well as the completely new opportunities offered by synchrotron radiation, are viewed from a modern perspective. The style of the book is to develop the basic physical principles without obscuring them in too much mathematical rigour. This approach should make the book attractive to the wider community of material scientists, chemists, biologists and geologists, as well as to physicists who use synchrotron radiation in their research. The book should be useful both to students taking course in X-rays, and to more experienced professionals who have the desire to extend their knowledge into new areas.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Acknowledgements	xv
Notes on the use of this book	xvii
X-ray and their interaction with matter	1	(28)
X-rays - waves and photons	4	(1)
Scattering	5	(12)
Absorption	17	(6)
Refraction and reflection	23	(1)
Coherence	24	(2)
Magnetic interactions	26	(3)
Sources of X-rays	29	(32)
Early history and the X-ray tube	29	(1)
Introduction to synchrotron radiation	30	(3)
Characterising the beam: brilliance	32	(1)
Synchrotron radiation from a circular arc	33	(7)
Example: Bending magnet radiation at the ESRF	38	(2)
Insertion devices	40	(14)
Undulator radiation	41	(13)
Emittance and the diffraction limit	54	(3)
The free-electron laser	57	(4)
Refraction and reflection from interfaces	61	(46)
Refraction and phase shift in scattering	62	(2)
Refractive index and scattering length density	64	(4)
Refractive index including absorption	68	(2)
Snell's law and the Fresnel equations in the X-ray region	70	(3)
Reflection from a homogeneous slab	73	(5)
Specular reflection from multilayers	78	(5)
Reflectivity from a graded interface	83	(1)
Rough interfaces and surfaces	84	(8)
The limiting case of Fresnel reflectivity	88	(1)
Uncorrelated surfaces	88	(1)
Correlated surfaces	89	(3)
Examples of reflectivity studies	92	(6)
Langmuir layers	92	(2)
Free surface of liquid crystals	94	(4)
X-ray optics	98	(9)
Refractive X-ray optics	98	(5)
Curved mirrors	103	(4)
Kinematical diffraction	107	(66)
Two electrons	107	(5)
Scattering from an atom	112	(2)
Scattering from a molecule	114	(2)
Scattering from a crystal lattice	116	(28)
The Laue condition and reciprocal space	118	(7)
The Ewald sphere	125	(1)
The unit cell structure factor	125	(4)
Lattice sums in 1, 2 and 3 dimensions	129	(2)
Quasiperiodic lattices	131	(4)
Crystal truncation rods	135	(4)
Lattice vibrations, the Debye-Waller factor and TDS	139	(5)
The measured intensity from a crystallite	144	(10)
The Lorentz factor	146	(5)
The Lorentz factor in 2D	151	(3)
Applications of kinematical diffraction	154	(19)
Powder diffraction	154	(5)
Diffraction from a fibre	159	(6)
Two-dimensional crystallography	165	(8)
Diffraction by perfect crystals	173	(30)
One atomic layer: reflection and transmission	175	(1)
Kinematical reflection from a few layers	176	(2)
Darwin theory and dynamical diffraction	178	(4)
The Darwin reflectivity curve	182	(13)
Darwin width	184	(2)
Extinction depth	186	(1)
The integrated intensity	187	(2)
Standing waves	189	(1)
Higher-order reflections	190	(2)
Effect of absorption	192	(2)
Asymmetric Bragg geometry	194	(1)
DuMond diagrams	195	(8)
Photoelectric absorption	203	(32)
X-ray absorption from an isolated atom	206	(9)
Free-electron approximation	207	(4)
Beyond the free-electron approximation	211	(4)
EXAFS and near-edge structure	215	(11)
Theoretical outline	218	(3)
Example: CdTe nano-crystals	221	(5)
X-ray dichroism	226	(9)
Resonant scattering	235	(72)
The forced charged oscillator	237	(3)
The atom as an assembly of oscillators	240	(1)
The Kramers-Kronig relations	240	(3)
Numerical estimate of f'	243	(3)
Breakdown of Friedel's law and Bijvoet pairs	246	(7)
Bijvoet's experiment on chiral crystals	251	(2)
The phase problem in crystallography	253	(5)
The MAD method	254	(4)
Quantum mechanical description	258	(3)
Appendices
A Scattering and absorption cross-sections	261	(6)
B Classical electric dipole radiation	267	(6)
C Quantization of the electromagnetic field	273	(6)
D Gaussian statistics	279	(2)
E Fourier transforms	281	(6)
F Comparison of X-rays with neutrons	287	(2)
G MATLAB computer programs	289	(18)
List of Tables	307	(2)
References	309	(4)
Index	313