Exploring Prehistory: How Archaeology Reveals Our Past

by Crabtree, Pam; Campana, Douglas

• ISBN13: 9780072978148
• ISBN10: 0072978147
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-06-21
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages

Summary

This new introduction to archaeology integrates world prehistory with discussion of archeological methods and techniques. It introduces archaeological methods gradually and in context through the use ofArchaeology in Practiceboxes which give students a more complete understanding of the tools archaeologists use to uncover the past and the reasons why they use those tools. ComprehensiveCase Studiesfocus not just on specific sites but also on why these sites are important in the broader archaeological context.Exploring Prehistoryhas been developed with the aim of offering a better way to introduce students to archaeology's unique understanding of human societies.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements	xviii
Preface	xix
Exploring the Past	1	(30)
The Discovery of the Iceman	1	(2)
Archaeology	3	(1)
On the Cutting Edge Differing Attitudes toward the Dead	4	(1)
The Issues and Problems of Prehistory	4	(1)
The Historical Growth of Archaeology in Europe	5	(2)
The New Geology	7	(1)
Human Antiquity	7	(2)
The Beginnings of Archaeology in the Americas	9	(1)
The Field of Archaeology Today	10	(2)
Goals of Archaeological Interpretation	12	(1)
Reconstructing Culture History: Archaeology as History without Writing	13	(1)
The Investigation of Prehistoric Lifeways	14	(2)
Archaeology as the Study of Culture Change	16	(3)
The Archaeological Record	19	(3)
Preserving the Past	22	(4)
Archaeology in Practice Stratigraphy and Stratigraphic Analysis: How Do Archaeologists Reconstruct the Sequence of Events at an Archaeological Site?	23	(3)
An Archaeologist Toolkit	26	(1)
Conclusion	27	(1)
PART 1 ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE HUMAN ANCESTORS
What Does Archaeology Tell Us about Ancient Human Societies?	28	(3)
Setting the Stage: Who Were the Earliest Human Ancestors?	31	(19)
Humans as Primates and Hominins	32	(1)
Australopithecus and the South African Discoveries	32	(2)
The Leakeys and Olduvai Gorge	34	(2)
Australopithecus afarensis: Lucy and the First Family	36	(1)
The Laetoli Footprints	37	(1)
Earliest Ancestors	37	(1)
The Branching Tree of Hominin Evolution	38	(1)
The Earliest Members of Our Genus, Homo	39	(10)
Archaeology in Practice Dating the Earliest Hominins	41	(5)
Case Study The South African Australopiths: Did They Hunt, or Were They Hunted?	46	(3)
Conclusion	49	(1)
The Earliest Archaeological Sites: The First Stone Tools	50	(14)
The Beginnings of the Archaeological Record	52	(1)
The Earliest Forms of Stone Tools	52	(1)
The Nature of the Early Archaeological Sites	53	(1)
The Interpretation of Protohuman Behavior	53	(3)
Archaeology in Practice The Basics of Working Stone	54	(2)
How Were the Olduvai and Koobi Fora Sites Formed?	56	(1)
Who Created the Sites? The Roles of Carnivores and Hominins	57	(1)
Cut Marks on Bone: Butchery at Olduvai and Koobi Fora	58	(4)
Case Study The Interpretation of Early Hominin Behavior: The DK Controversy	60	(2)
Explaining the Sites: Alternative Hypotheses	62	(1)
Successful Scavengers?	62	(1)
Conclusion	63	(1)
Homo ergaster and the Lower Paleolithic in Africa and the Near East	64	(12)
The Acheulian Industry	67	(3)
Archaeology in Practice Experimental Archaeology: How Were Stone Tools Made and Used?	68	(2)
The Control of Fire	70	(1)
When and Why Did Hominins Expand Out of Africa?	71	(2)
The Later Acheulian in the Near East: Gesher Benot Ya'aqov	73	(1)
Conclusion	74	(2)
The Lower Paleolithic in Asia and Europe	76	(17)
The Initial Human Settlement of Java	78	(1)
Stone Industries with and without Handaxes: The Movius Line	78	(2)
Beyond the Movius Line: The Lower Paleolithic of East Asia	80	(1)
Dragon Bones, Zhoukoudian, and the Discovery of Peking Man	80	(3)
The Initial Settlement of Europe	83	(1)
The Earliest Inhabitants of Europe: The Grand Dolina Site, Spain	83	(2)
The Later Lower Paleolithic in Europe	85	(1)
The Levallois Technique	85	(2)
On the Cutting Edge The Human Family ``Bush''	86	(1)
Acheulian Lifeways: Elephant Hunters or Scavengers? The Evidence from Torralba and Ambrona	87	(2)
Terra Amata: A Hunter's Encampment?	89	(1)
The Distribution of Early Humans in Europe	90	(2)
Archaeology in Practice Dating the Past: Thermoluminescence (TL) and Electron Spin Resonance (ESR)	91	(1)
Conclusion	92	(1)
The Middle Paleolithic and the Appearance of the Neanderthals	93	(14)
Humans unlike Ourselves: The Discovery of the Neanderthals	94	(4)
Archaeology in Practice The Pleistocene and Its Chronology	96	(2)
Middle Paleolithic Archaeology: The Mousterian Industry	98	(1)
The Bordes Typology of Middle Paleolithic Stone Tools	99	(1)
Explaining the Variability in Mousterian Assemblages: Tribes, Activities, and Tool Manufacture	100	(1)
The Culture of the Middle Paleolithic	101	(1)
Case Study The Excavations in Kebara Cave, Israel	102	(1)
The Issue of Neanderthal Burials	102	(2)
The Middle Paleolithic--Middle Stone Age in Africa	104	(1)
Conclusion	105	(2)
PART 2 THE ORIGINS OF MODERN HUMAN SOCIETY	107	(159)
The Appearance of Modern Humans	110	(12)
Early Theories on the Origins of Modern Humans	111	(1)
The Biochemical Evidence	111	(2)
Archaeology in Practice Biochemical Evidence of Heredity and the Molecular Clock	113	(1)
Fossil Evidence: The Appearance of Modern Humans in Africa	113	(5)
Case Study Skhul, Qafzeh, and Kebara: Anatomically Modern Humans and Neanderthals in the Levant	116	(2)
On the Cutting Edge Debating the Origin of Modern Human Behavior	118	(1)
From Africa to Europe	118	(1)
Saint Cesaire and the Last Neanderthals	119	(1)
Conclusion	120	(2)
Late Paleolithic Cultures of the Near East and Africa	122	(11)
The Upper Paleolithic in the Near East	123	(5)
Archaeology in Practice Animal Remains as Archaeological Evidence	126	(2)
The Late Stone Age in Africa	128	(4)
On the Cutting Edge Ancient and Modern Hunters and Gatherers	130	(2)
Conclusion	132	(1)
The Industries and Cultures of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe	133	(15)
Upper Paleolithic Industries: General Characteristics	134	(2)
Archaeology in Practice Radiocarbon Age Determination	135	(1)
The Upper Paleolithic Sequence in Europe	136	(2)
Subsistence Strategies in the European Upper Paleolithic	138	(3)
Case Study Paleolithic Subsistence: La Riera Cave	140	(1)
Upper Paleolithic Settlement Patterns	141	(3)
Northern Europe at the End of the Ice Age	144	(1)
Late Pleistocene Hunters and Fishers in Northern Europe	145	(2)
Conclusion	147	(1)
Art and Cognition in the Upper Paleolithic	148	(13)
Historical Background: The Discovery of the Painted Caves	149	(4)
Parietal Art: The Images on the Walls	153	(1)
Mobiliary (Portable) Art	154	(2)
Archaeology in Practice Tools and Art Objects of Bone and Antler	155	(1)
Dating and Chronology	156	(1)
Interpretation of Paleolithic Art	157	(2)
Rock Art from Other Regions of the World	159	(1)
Conclusion	159	(2)
The Initial Human Colonization of Australia	161	(9)
Greater Australia: The Environmental Background	162	(1)
The Archaeological Evidence for the Initial Colonization of the Sahul	162	(4)
Archaeology in Practice Changing Sea Levels: Eustacy and Isostacy	164	(1)
Case Study Lake Mungo	165	(1)
Later Australian Prehistory: A Continent of Hunter-Gatherers	166	(3)
On the Cutting Edge The Tasmanian Paradox: Why Did the Tasmanians Stop Fishing?	167	(2)
Conclusion	169	(1)
The Peopling of the New World	170	(18)
Geological Background	171	(2)
Archaeology in Practice Causes of Climatic Change	172	(1)
The Early Archaeological Record from Alaska	173	(1)
Climatic Changes: Late Glacial North America	174	(1)
Clovis Hunters in North America	175	(2)
Late Pleistocene Extinctions	177	(1)
The Pleistocene Overkill Hypothesis	177	(2)
Case Study The Murray Springs Clovis Site	178	(1)
Alternative Explanations for Late Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinctions	179	(1)
Clovis Settlement and Subsistence in the Eastern United States	180	(1)
Folsom Hunters	180	(1)
Pre-Clovis Occupation of the Americas: The Evidence from Monte Verde	181	(1)
Conclusion	182	(2)
PART 3 POST-PLEISTOCENE ADAPTATIONS
How Did Human Societies Change at the End of the Ice Age?	184	(4)
The Mesolithic Period in Europe	188	(14)
Climatic Changes in Europe in the Early Postglacial Period	189	(1)
Mesolithic Societies in Europe	189	(3)
Archaeology in Practice Pollen Analysis	190	(2)
Mesolithic Stone Technology	192	(1)
How Did Mesolithic Peoples Make a Living?	192	(3)
Mesolithic Settlement Patterns	195	(1)
An Example of a Mesolithic Settlement: Mount Sandel in Northern Ireland	195	(3)
Case Study Star Carr: Interpreting Mesolithic Seasonality	196	(2)
Population Growth and Economic Transformations in the Later Mesolithic	198	(1)
A Late Mesolithic Site: Tybrind Vig in Denmark	199	(1)
Social Changes in the Later Mesolithic: The Emergence of Cultural Complexity	200	(1)
Conclusion	200	(2)
Post-Pleistocene Adaptations in the Americas: The Development of the Archaic	202	(13)
The American Great Basin	203	(1)
The Paleoindian and Early Archaic Background	204	(1)
Recent Research on Great Basin Adaptations	204	(3)
Archaeology in Practice The Recalibration of Radiocarbon Dating	205	(2)
Eastern North America: The Paleoindian Background	207	(1)
Early Archaic Subsistence in the Eastern Woodlands	207	(2)
Case Study Great Basin Subsistence: Danger Cave and Hogup Cave	208	(1)
Middle Holocene Changes in Subsistence and Settlement	209	(3)
Case Study Excavations at the Koster Site and the Emergence of Complex Hunter-Gatherers	210	(2)
Later Archaic Settlement and Subsistence in the Eastern Woodlands	212	(1)
Conclusion	213	(2)
The Origins of Agriculture: A Crucial Step	215	(9)
Changing Relationships between Humans and the Environment: Climatic Change and Population Growth	216	(1)
The Differences between Farming and Foraging Societies	216	(1)
Theories of Agricultural Origins: The Pioneering Work of V. Gordon Childe	217	(1)
A Modern View of Post-Pleistocene Climatic Changes in Southwest Asia	218	(1)
Where Did Near Eastern Agriculture Originate? Robert Braidwood's ``Hilly Flanks'' Hypothesis	219	(3)
Archaeology in Practice How Do We Reconstruct the Near Eastern Climate at the Close of the Pleistocene?	220	(2)
Demographic Changes and Agricultural Origins	222	(1)
Current Approaches	222	(1)
Conclusion	222	(2)
Last Foragers and First Farmers: The Origins of Agriculture in the Old World	224	(15)
Late Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherers in Southwest Asia	225	(5)
Case Study Karim Shahir and the Background to Agriculture in the Zagros	228	(2)
Archaeological Evidence for Early Plant Domestication in the Near East	230	(4)
Archaeology in Practice Archaeological Evidence for Plant Domestication	232	(2)
The Archaeology of Animal Domestication	234	(2)
Archaeology in Practice What Is a Domestic Animal?	235	(1)
Other Centers of Plant and Animal Domestication in the Old World	236	(2)
Conclusion	238	(1)
Agricultural Origins in the New World	239	(10)
The Domestication of Maize	240	(1)
Early Studies of Plant Domestication: The Tehuacan Valley Project	240	(3)
Guila Naquitz	243	(1)
Plant Domestication in Highland South America	244	(1)
Animal Domestication in the Americas	244	(1)
Other Centers of Plant Domestication in the Americas	245	(1)
Archaeology in Practice Phytolith Analysis	246	(1)
Agricultural Hearths: Similarities and Differences	246	(2)
Conclusion	248	(1)
The Consequences of the Agricultural Revolution	249	(17)
Sedentism and Population Growth	250	(2)
Increased Disease Load and Early Farming Communities	252	(1)
Population Growth and the Expansion of Agricultural Settlements	252	(2)
Case Study 'Ain Ghazal, Jordan	253	(1)
Early Farming Villages in Turkey	254	(1)
Early Farmers in Greece and Southeast Europe	254	(1)
Early Farmers in Temperate Europe	255	(4)
On the Cutting Edge Identifying Migration in Neolithic Europe: The Role of Stable Isotope Studies	258	(1)
The Development of New Technologies and Crafts	259	(5)
Archaeology in Practice the Development of Pottery Technology	260	(2)
Case Study Catal Hoyuk and the Study of Neolithic Ritual Life	262	(2)
Trade and Exchange in Early Farming Communities	264	(1)
Conclusion	264	(2)
PART 4 HOW AND WHY DID CITIES AND STATES DEVELOP?	266	(147)
The Development of Cities and States: Mesopotamia and the Urban Revolution	270	(22)
The Origin of Complex Society: The Contribution of V. Gordon Childe	271	(1)
The Characteristics of Urban Societies	271	(2)
Contemporary Theoretical Approaches to the Study of Complex Societies	273	(1)
The Evolution of Complex Societies in Mesopotamia	274	(1)
The Settling of the Mesopotamian Lowlands	275	(2)
The Ubaid Period	277	(3)
The Emergence of Cities	280	(4)
The Beginning of History	284	(1)
Archaeology in Practice Remote Sensing and Landscape Reconstruction in Archaeology	284	(1)
What Led to the Rise of Early State Societies?	285	(5)
Case Study The Royal Cemetery at Ur	286	(3)
On the Cutting Edge Archaeology and War in Iraq	289	(1)
Conclusion	290	(2)
The Indus Age: The Origins of Urbanism in South Asia	292	(14)
The Geography and Ecology of the Indus Valley Region	293	(1)
The Beginnings of Farming in the Indus Region	293	(1)
The Early Indus Period	294	(1)
The Emergence of Complex Societies in the Indus Valley	295	(2)
The Post-Urban Phase and the Harappan Eclipse	297	(3)
Archaeology in Practice Deciphering the Indus Valley Script	298	(2)
The Legacy of the Harappan Civilization	300	(4)
Case Study: Indus Valley Urbanism: Mohenjo-daro and Harappa	301	(3)
Conclusion	304	(2)
The Rise of Complex Societies in Egypt and Sub-Saharan Africa	306	(21)
Ancient Egypt: The Gift of the Nile	308	(1)
The Egyptian Environment	308	(2)
The Earliest Egyptians	310	(1)
Early Settlements in the Delta	310	(1)
Settlements and Cemeteries in Upper Egypt	311	(6)
Archaeology in Practice Sequence Dating and Archaeological Seriation	314	(3)
Egyptian Kingdoms and the Unification of Egypt	317	(2)
The Rise of the Pharaohs	319	(1)
The Formation of the Egyptian State	320	(1)
Nubia: Egypt's Neighbor to the South	321	(1)
Complex Societies in Precolonial Sub-Saharan Africa	322	(3)
On the Cutting Edge Human Sacrifice in Egypt	323	(2)
Conclusion	325	(2)
Early Cities and States in China	327	(12)
The Yellow River (Huang He) Valley	328	(1)
The Neolithic in the Yellow River Valley	328	(4)
The Late Neolithic Longshan Culture	332	(1)
The Early Bronze Age in North China: The Erlitou Period	333	(2)
Case Study Excavations at Anyang	334	(1)
The Shang Dynasty: The Appearance of Cities and States in Bronze Age China	335	(1)
Theories to Explain the Rise of Complex Societies in China	335	(3)
Archaeology in Practice Remote Sensing Closer to Earth: Nondestructive Archaeology	336	(2)
Conclusions	338	(1)
Later Prehistoric Europe: A Different Pattern of Cultural Complexity	339	(12)
Changes in Settlement and Subsistence in the Later Neolithic of Temperate Europe	340	(2)
Archaeology in Practice Analysis of Metal Artifacts	342	(1)
The Beginnings of Metallurgy in Europe	342	(2)
The Beginnings of the Bronze Age in Temperate Europe	344	(2)
Europe's First Towns: Late Hallstatt Towns and Trade	346	(1)
The Oppida and the Origins of Urbanism in Temperate Europe	347	(3)
Case Study Manching and Kelheim	349	(1)
Conclusion	350	(1)
Complex Societies in Mesoamerica	351	(18)
Olmec Beginnings	353	(3)
Early Urbanism in Oaxaca	356	(2)
Teotihuacan and the Valley of Mexico	358	(3)
The Beginnings of the Classic Maya	361	(2)
The Classic Maya	363	(2)
Archaeology in Practice Archaeology and History: The Evidence from the Maya Inscriptions	364	(1)
Tikal	365	(1)
The Collapse of the Classic Maya	366	(1)
The Postclassic Period in Mesoamerica and the Rise of the Aztec Empire	366	(1)
The Archaeology of Aztec Daily Life	367	(1)
The End of the Aztec Empire	367	(1)
Conclusion	367	(2)
Cities, States, and Empires in the Andes	369	(17)
Environmental Background	370	(1)
Herding, Farming, and Fishing: The Economic Background to the Emergence of Complex Societies in Peru	371	(1)
Initial Period	372	(1)
The Early Horizon and the Chavin Cult	373	(2)
The Early Intermediate Period	375	(1)
The Nasca of the Southern Coast	375	(3)
Archaeology in Practice The Preservation of Organic Materials	376	(2)
The Mochica State on the North Coast	378	(1)
The Middle Horizon	379	(3)
The Late Intermediate Period	382	(1)
The Late Horizon	382	(2)
Conclusion	384	(2)
Middle Range and Complex Societies in North America	386	(18)
The Early Woodland Period and the Beginning of Cultural Complexity in the Midwest	387	(2)
Complex Societies of the Middle Woodland Period: The Hopewell Interaction Sphere	389	(2)
The Late Woodland Period and the Adoption of Maize Agriculture	391	(1)
The Emergence of Mississippian Societies	391	(4)
Archaeology in Practice The Analysis of Human Burials	392	(3)
Mississippian Settlement and Social Organization	395	(1)
Mississippian Collapse?	395	(3)
Case Study Cahokia and Moundville	396	(2)
Middle-Range Societies	398	(1)
The Origins of Agriculture in the North American Borderlands	399	(1)
Farms, Villages, and ``Towns'' in the American Southwest	400	(2)
Conclusion	402	(2)
The Future of Archaeology	404	(9)
The Destruction of Archaeological Sites	405	(1)
The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act	406	(1)
Archaeology and Nationalism	407	(2)
Some Final Thoughts on the Future of Archaeology	409	(4)
On the Cutting Edge The Kennewick Controversy	410	(3)
Bibliography	413	(26)
Credits	439	(6)
Glossary	445	(22)
Index	467