Federal Law of Employment Discrimination in a Nutshell

by Player, MacK A.

• ISBN13: 9780314211682
• ISBN10: 0314211683
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1999-10-01
• Publisher: West Group

Table of Contents

Preface	v
Table of Cases	xxxi
PART I. THE CONTEXT OF EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION LAW
The Common Law	1	(11)
Why Study Common Law?	1	(1)
The Traditional ``Employment At Will'' Rule	1	(2)
Employer/Employee Relationship	1	(1)
Union/Member Relationship	2	(1)
Evolution of the Common Law ``Employment At-Will'' Rule: Wrongful Discharge	3	(3)
Illegal Acts	3	(1)
Protective Legislation	3	(1)
Reporting Illegal Activity---``Whistleblowers''	4	(1)
The Limits of Public Policy	4	(1)
Remedies	5	(1)
Implied Covenant of Good Faith and Fair Dealing	6	(1)
Harassment and Abusive Dismissals: Use of General Tort Theory	7	(1)
Individual Contracts of Employment	8	(4)
Formal Written Contracts	8	(1)
Oral Contracts	9	(1)
Employment Manuals	10	(2)
Labor Relations Context	12	(6)
The Labor Relations Statutes	12	(1)
Concerted Activity---Civil Rights Protests	12	(1)
Selecting the Bargaining Representative	13	(1)
Collective Bargaining	14	(1)
Union Duty of Fair Representation	14	(1)
The Collective Bargaining Agreement	15	(1)
Internal Union Affairs: Landrum---Griffin Act	16	(2)
Public Employees and the Constitution	18	(5)
The Constitution and the Requirement of ``State Action''	18	(1)
The ``Right-Privilege'' Doctrine	18	(1)
Arbitrary Employment Decisions: Equal Protection of the Law and Substantive Due Process of Law	19	(1)
Procedural Due Process of Law	20	(1)
Relationship of the Constitution to Employment Discrimination Law	21	(2)
PART II. AN OVERVIEW OF EMPLOYMENT DISCRIMINATION LAW (THE ``NUTSHELL'' IN A ``NUTSHELL'')
A Catalogue and History of the Statutes	23	(15)
The Core Statutes Generally	23	(1)
Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Title VII)	24	(1)
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA)	25	(1)
The Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)	26	(1)
Collateral Overlapping Statutes and Programs	27	(5)
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA), (29 U.S.C.A. 206(d))	28	(1)
Immigration Reform and Control Act, 8 U.S.C.A. 1324B	28	(1)
The Civil Rights Act of 1866, (42 U.S.C.A. 1981)	29	(1)
The Constitution (as enforced through 42 U.S.C.A. 1983)	29	(1)
Titles VI and IX	30	(1)
Executive Order 11246	30	(2)
Social Legislation That Goes Beyond ``Invidious'' Discrimination: Employee Rights Statutes	32	(1)
Generally	32	(1)
Social Legislation That Goes Beyond ``Invidious'' Discrimination: Employee Rights Statutes---Continued
The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA)	33	(1)
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA)	33	(1)
The Veterans Reemployment Rights Act	34	(1)
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA)	34	(1)
The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 (WARN)	35	(1)
Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988	35	(1)
Credit and Employment	36	(2)
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) and An Overview of Enforcement Procedures	38	(6)
The EEOC Generally	38	(1)
State Agencies	39	(1)
EEOC and Charge Processing	39	(2)
EEOC Investigation and Enforcement	41	(1)
EEOC Regulatory Guidance	42	(1)
EEOC and Federal Employee Enforcement	42	(1)
State Policy Makers	43	(1)
PART III. THE ``RANGE'' OF THE MAJOR STATUTES
Coverage and Scope	44	(13)
Coverage and Scope: Introduction and Overview	44	(1)
``Employer''---Coverage	45	(5)
``Person Affecting Commerce''	45	(1)
Number of Employees	45	(1)
Period of Time	46	(1)
Special Types of Employers	46	(1)
State and Local Government Agencies	46	(1)
Federal Government	46	(1)
Military	47	(1)
Indian Tribes	47	(1)
Religious Organizations	47	(1)
Membership Clubs	47	(1)
American Employers Abroad: Extraterritorial Application	48	(1)
Foreign Employers in the United States: Problems of Sovereignty and Treaties	48	(2)
Contingent Workers	50	(1)
Employer---Scope of Proscriptions	50	(3)
Protected Classes: ``Because of''---To Be Distinguished From ``Unfairness''	50	(1)
Discriminatory Acts	51	(1)
The Employment Relationship	51	(2)
Labor Organization---Coverage	53	(1)
Labor Organization---Scope of Proscriptions	53	(1)
Employment Agencies---Coverage	54	(1)
Employment Agencies---Scope of Protections	55	(1)
Advertisements	56	(1)
PART IV. CONCEPTS OF ILLEGAL ``DISCRIMINATION''
Express Use of Proscribed Classifications	57	(5)
Facial Discrimination and the Principle of Equal Treatment	57	(3)
Good Cause and Benign Motivation	60	(2)
Justifications for Express Use of Proscribed Classifications	62	(19)
The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ) Defense	62	(8)
Generally: The Statutes	62	(1)
Elements of the BFOQ Defense	63	(1)
Generally: The Burden	63	(1)
``Necessary'': ``Essence'' vs. ``Tangential''	63	(3)
``All or Substantially All'' Are Unable to Perform	66	(3)
``Necessity'': Alternatives and Accommodation	69	(1)
Affirmative Action	70	(11)
The Definition of Affirmative Action: Sources and Statutory Provisions	70	(2)
Basic Legality of Affirmative Action: Construing the Proviso	72	(1)
Title VII Standards for Legal Affirmative Action	73	(1)
Justification for the Plan	73	(1)
Content of the Plan	74	(2)
Duration of the Plan	76	(1)
Respective Burdens	76	(1)
Constitutional Standards for Affirmative Action: Public Employers	76	(1)
Generally	76	(1)
Burdens	77	(1)
Justification for the Plan	78	(1)
Content of the Plan	78	(1)
Decrees, Settlements, and Collective Bargaining Agreements	78	(3)
Illegally Motivated Decision Making: The Role of Motive and Its Proof	81	(29)
The Role of Motive Generally	81	(1)
Motivation Proved by Direct Evidence	82	(3)
Circumstantial Evidence: Unexplained Disparate Treatment	85	(10)
The ``Three Step Minuet'': An Overview of the Burdens	85	(1)
Step One Revisited: The Prima Facie Case	86	(1)
Hiring and Promotion	86	(4)
Discipline, Layoffs, and Discharge	90	(1)
Compensation and Conditions of Employment	91	(1)
Step Two: Defendant's Burden to ``Articulate a Legitimate, Non-Discriminatory Reason''	91	(2)
Step Three, ``Pretext: Plaintiff's Burden of Persuasion	93	(1)
When the Articulated Reason is not Believed: ``Pretext-Plus''?	94	(1)
Identical Treatment Improperly Motivated	95	(1)
Legitimate and Illegitimate Factors: ``Mixed Motives'' and ``After Acquired Evidence''	96	(4)
Mixed Motives	96	(1)
After-Acquired Evidence of Employee Misconduct	97	(1)
After Acquired Evidence: ``Resume Fraud''	98	(2)
Systemic Discrimination and Statistical Proof of Motive	100	(8)
The Teamsters Model: Respective Burdens	100	(3)
Problems of Statistical Proof: Hazelwood and Work Force Imbalance	103	(4)
Applicant Flow Data vs. Snapshot Pool Data	107	(1)
Perpetuation of Past Segregation	108	(2)
Disparate Impact: Liability in the Absence of Motive	110	(39)
The Disparate Impact Concept: Griggs v. Duke Power Co.	110	(2)
Plaintiff's Case: Proving Adverse Impact	112	(11)
Generally: Nature of Proof	112	(1)
Snapshot Demographic Comparisons	112	(1)
Applicant Pool	113	(3)
Flow Data	116	(1)
The Concept and Measurement	116	(3)
The Point of Measuring Flow: ``Bottom Line''	119	(2)
Adjustments and ``Norming''	121	(2)
Flow or Pool?	123	(1)
Justifying Impact: Defendant's Burden	123	(3)
Generally: The Definition of ``Business Necessity''	123	(3)
Justifying Impact: Defendant's Burden---Continued
Lesser Discriminatory Alternatives	126	(1)
``Business Necessity'' as a Fixed or Sliding Standard	127	(1)
Impact Analysis Applied: Subjective Systems	128	(1)
Impact Analysis Applied: Objective, Non-Testing Standards	129	(3)
Impact Analysis and Scored Tests	132	(8)
General Principles and the Testing Proviso	132	(2)
Content Validity	134	(2)
Criterion-Related Validity	136	(4)
Construct Validation	140	(1)
Seniority: Impact and Motive	140	(9)
Defined and the Scope of the Protecting Proviso	140	(5)
The Seniority Proviso Applied: Bona Fide ``System''	145	(1)
System	145	(2)
``Good Faith''	147	(1)
Timing the Challenge: Statute of Limitations	147	(2)
PART V. ENVIRONMENTAL DISCRIMINATION AND HARASSMENT
Conditions of Employment	149	(6)
The Statutes and Their Scope	149	(1)
Segregation	150	(1)
Grooming	151	(4)
Religious Discrimination	151	(1)
Race and National Origin Discrimination	152	(1)
Sex	153	(2)
Harassment	155	(12)
Harassment Concepts Generally	155	(1)
Tangible Employment Action (``Quid Pro Quo'')	155	(1)
Hostile Environment	156	(4)
Generally	156	(1)
``Unwelcome'': The Subjective Element	157	(1)
``Unreasonable'': The Objective Element	158	(2)
``Because of''	160	(1)
``Employer'' Liability for Harassment	160	(5)
Senior Officers	161	(1)
Mid-Level Supervisors	161	(2)
Co-Worker Harassment	163	(2)
Overreaction Danger	165	(2)
PART VI. PROTECTED CLASSES AND SPECIAL PROBLEMS
Race and Color	167	(6)
``Race'' and ``Color'' Distinctions under Title VII	167	(3)
``Race'' and the 1866 Civil Rights Act	170	(3)
Generally: The Definition of ``Race''	170	(1)
Scope of the 1866 Act: Types of Discrimination Proscribed	171	(1)
Coverage, Procedures, and Remedies Under 1981	172	(1)
National Origin, Citizenship, Alienage	173	(7)
``National Origin'' Generally	173	(1)
``Citizenship'' and ``Alienage''	174	(3)
Title VII Generally	174	(1)
Constitution	175	(1)
Immigration Reform and Control Act	176	(1)
Treaties and Foreign Employers	177	(1)
Language Discrimination	177	(3)
Basic Fluency	177	(1)
English Only Rules	178	(1)
Accents	179	(1)
Relative Fluency	179	(1)
Sex, Sexuality, Pregnancy, and Marriage	180	(30)
``Sex'': Generally Defined	180	(1)
Pregnancy and Childbirth	180	(5)
Title VII and the Pregnancy Discrimination Act	180	(4)
Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA)	184	(1)
Compensation: Special Problems and Issues	185	(19)
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA)	185	(1)
Generally	185	(1)
Plaintiff's Burden: The Prima Facie Case	186	(1)
``Equal Work'' Defined	186	(3)
Same ``Establishment''	189	(1)
Unequal Wage ``Rate''	190	(1)
The Comparison	191	(1)
Defenses to Unequal Pay for Equal Work	192	(1)
Bona Fide ``Systems'' of Seniority, Merit, or Output	192	(1)
``Factor Other Than Sex''	193	(4)
Employer Compliance and Remedies	197	(1)
Title VII	197	(1)
Generally and the ``Bennett Amendment''	197	(1)
Proving Illegally Motivated Wage Differences	198	(2)
Comparable Worth	200	(2)
Fringe Benefits Based on Sex-Based Actuarial Differences	202	(2)
Compensation: Special Problems and Issues---Continued
Pregnancy Benefits	204	(1)
``Sexual Stereotypes'' and Different Standards Generally	205	(1)
Marriage as ``Sex'' Discrimination	206	(1)
Homosexuality, Sexual Activity, and Sexual Preference	207	(2)
Environmental Discrimination and Harassment (a cross-reference)	209	(1)
Religion and Religious Practices	210	(11)
``Religion'' Defined: Generally	210	(2)
Religious Observances and Practices	212	(1)
Accommodation of Religious Practices	212	(4)
Exemption for Religious Organizations	216	(2)
Labor Organizations	218	(1)
Proving Discriminatory Motive	219	(2)
Disabilities and Handicaps	221	(30)
The Statutes: An Overview	221	(1)
``Disability'' Defined	222	(8)
``Impairment''	223	(2)
``Substantially Limits a Major Life Activity''	225	(4)
Correction and Control of Conditions	229	(1)
``Qualified Individual''	230	(7)
Job Prerequisites	230	(1)
``Essential'' vs. Non-Essential Job Functions	231	(3)
``Substantial Risk of Injury''	234	(1)
Reasonable Accommodations that Permit Performance of Essential Job Duties	234	(2)
Burden of Proving Reasonableness: The Bridge to ``Undue Hardship''	236	(1)
``Undue Hardship'' and Its Relationship to ``Reasonable Accommodation''	237	(5)
Generally	237	(1)
``Reasonable Accommodation''/``Undue Hardship'' Applied: Some Illustrations	238	(4)
Proving Disability Discrimination	242	(4)
Generally	242	(1)
Facial Distinctions	243	(1)
Motive	243	(2)
Impact Analysis	245	(1)
Preclusion: Effect of Disability Claims	246	(1)
Insurance and Benefit Plans under the ADA	246	(2)
Employer Actions	246	(1)
Underwriter Distinctions	247	(1)
Medical Examinations and Inquiries	248	(3)
Pre-Employment Examinations and Inquiries	248	(1)
Post-Offer Examinations	249	(1)
Post-Employment Examinations	249	(2)
Age and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act	251	(23)
The ADEA Generally	251	(1)
``Age'' Defined and the Age Class Protected	252	(3)
Proving Age Motivation:	255	(3)
Direct Evidence	255	(1)
Circumstantial Evidence: Individual Disparate Treatment	256	(1)
Statistics	257	(1)
Impact Analysis: Generally	258	(1)
``Factors Other Than Age'': An ADEA Approach to Impact?	259	(2)
Specific Exemptions	261	(2)
Law Enforcement Officers and Firefighters	261	(1)
Executives	262	(1)
Other Federal Laws	263	(1)
Defenses: Parallel to Title VII	263	(2)
Bona Fide Occupational Qualification	263	(1)
Seniority Systems	264	(1)
Compensation Distinctions and ``Bona Fide Benefit Plans''	265	(2)
Reductions in Force: Non-Voluntary Layoff	267	(2)
Early ``Voluntary'' Retirement	269	(2)
Voluntariness and Waiver	271	(3)
Retaliation	274	(7)
Retaliation Generally: The Statutes	274	(1)
``Participation''	274	(2)
Opposition	276	(1)
Protected Activity: Reasonable vs. Unreasonable Conduct	276	(1)
Practices Being Opposed	277	(1)
Employer Acts That Constitute Retaliation	277	(1)
Proving Retaliation: An Issue of Motive	278	(3)
PART VII. ENFORCEMENT
Remedies	281	(22)
Introduction to Remedial Powers: The Statutes	281	(1)
Basic Remedial Standards: The Prime Directive	282	(2)
Remedies for Employees Who ``Quit:'' Constructive Discharge	284	(1)
Hiring and Reinstatement	285	(1)
``Front Pay'' In Lieu of Reinstatement	286	(1)
Back Pay	287	(3)
Discretion to Deny Back Pay	287	(1)
Back Pay Calculation	288	(2)
Interest on Back Pay	290	(1)
Remedial Seniority	290	(1)
Damages	291	(3)
Compensatory Damages	291	(1)
Punitive Damages	292	(1)
Maximum Recovery Allowed	293	(1)
Liquidated Damages	294	(1)
Injunctive Relief and ``Affirmative Action''	295	(2)
Appointment of Counsel	297	(1)
Award of Attorneys' Fees:	297	(6)
Extent of Discretion	297	(3)
Calculation of Fee Awards	300	(1)
The Lodestar	300	(1)
Adjustments	301	(2)
Procedures---Non-Federal Defendants	303	(19)
Introduction and Overview	303	(1)
Pre-Suit Requirements---The Charge	304	(8)
Nature of the Charge	304	(1)
Where the Charge Must Be Filed	305	(1)
When the EEOC Charge Must Be Filed	306	(4)
The Discriminatory Act---The Point From Which Timeliness of the Charge is Measured	310	(2)
The Charge Before the EEOC	312	(1)
Filing of a Judicial Action	313	(6)
Private Party Suit	313	(2)
Public Suit	315	(2)
Class Actions	317	(1)
Private Actions and Rule 23	317	(2)
Government ``Pattern or Practice'' Suits	319	(1)
The Judicial Proceeding	319	(3)
Federal Employee Procedures	322	(8)
Introduction and Overview	322	(1)
The Complaint and Initial EEO Investigation	323	(1)
Hearing and Agency Determination	323	(1)
Appeal to the EEOC (Optional)	324	(1)
Judicial Complaint: A Number of Options	325	(2)
Age Discrimination in Employment Act: Special Procedures	327	(3)
Introduction: Notice of Intent to Sue	327	(1)
Federal Complaint Procedures (Optional)	327	(1)
Judicial Action	328	(2)
Alternative Forums and Preclusion	330	(7)
Prior Litigation	330	(1)
Prior Administrative Determinations	331	(2)
Arbitration	333	(4)
Index	337