Food Processing Handbook

by Editor: James G. Brennan (University of Reading, Whiteknights, UK)

• ISBN13: 9783527307197
• ISBN10: 3527307192
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-03-01
• Publisher: Wiley-VCH

Summary

Focusing on the technology involved, this handbook describes the principles as well as the equipment used and the changes - physical, chemical, microbiological and organoleptic - that occur during food preservation. In doing so the text covers in detail such techniques as post-harvest handling, thermal processing, evaporation and dehydration, freezing, irradiation, high pressure processing, emerging technologies, baking, extrusion, frying and packaging. In addition current concerns about the safety of processed foods and control of food processes are addressed, as are the impact of processing on the environment and separation and conversion operations widely used in the food industry. Scientists and engineers involved in food manufacture, research and development in both industry and academia will benefit greatly from the contents as will students studying food related topics at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.

Author Biography

Professor <b>James Gerard Brennan</b> lectured at The National College of Food Technology, Whiteknights, Reading. He is a founder member and fellow of the Institute of Food Science and Technology and served on its Council and on several of its committees. Over the years he has undertaken assignments for industrial companies, mainly in the fields of dehydratation, packaging, texture measurement, product and process development. Professor Brennan is a member of the editorial board of the <i>Journal of Food Engineering</i>, author of two books and of several chapters in books and published around 30 review articles and over 120 papers in scientific journals.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxi
List of Contributors	xxiii
Postharvest Handling and Preparation of Foods for Processing	1	(32)
Alistair S. Grandison
Introduction	1	(1)
Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and Damage	2	(7)
Raw Material Properties	3	(1)
Geometric Properties	3	(1)
Colour	4	(1)
Texture	5	(1)
Flavour	5	(1)
Functional Properties	5	(1)
Raw Material Specifications	6	(1)
Deterioration of Raw Materials	7	(1)
Damage to Raw Materials	7	(1)
Improving Processing Characteristics Through Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering	8	(1)
Storage and Transportation of Raw Materials	9	(5)
Storage	9	(2)
Temperature	11	(1)
Humidity	12	(1)
Composition of Atmosphere	12	(1)
Other Considerations	13	(1)
Transportation	13	(1)
Raw Material Cleaning	14	(7)
Dry Cleaning Methods	14	(4)
Wet Cleaning Methods	18	(2)
Peeling	20	(1)
Sorting and Grading	21	(5)
Criteria and Methods of Sorting	21	(3)
Grading	24	(2)
Blanching	26	(3)
Mechanisms and Purposes of Blanching	26	(1)
Processing Conditions	27	(1)
Blanching Equipment	28	(1)
Sulphiting of Fruits and Vegetables	29	(4)
References	30	(3)
Thermal Processing	33	(38)
Michael J. Lewis
Introduction	33	(3)
Reasons for Heating Foods	33	(1)
Safety and Quality Issues	34	(1)
Product Range	35	(1)
Reaction Kinetics	36	(3)
Microbial Inactivation	36	(1)
Heat Resistance at Constant Temperature	36	(3)
Temperature Dependence	39	(9)
Batch and Continuous Processing	41	(2)
Continuous Heat Exchangers	43	(5)
Heat Processing Methods	48	(20)
Thermisation	48	(1)
Pasteurisation	48	(1)
HTST Pasteurisation	49	(4)
Tunnel (Spray) Pasteurisers	53	(1)
Sterilisation	53	(1)
In-Container Processing	53	(8)
UHT Processing	61	(6)
Special Problems with Viscous and Particulate Products	67	(1)
Filling Procedures	68	(1)
Storage	68	(3)
References	69	(2)
Evaporation and Dehydration	71	(54)
James G. Brennan
Evaporation (Concentration, Condensing)	71	(14)
General Principles	71	(2)
Equipment Used in Vacuum Evaporation	73	(1)
Vacuum Pans	73	(1)
Short Tube Vacuum Evaporators	74	(1)
Long Tube Evaporators	75	(1)
Plate Evaporators	76	(1)
Agitated Thin Film Evaporators	77	(1)
Centrifugal Evaporators	77	(1)
Ancillary Equipment	78	(1)
Multiple-Effect Evaporation (MEE)	78	(1)
Vapour Recompression	79	(1)
Applications for Evaporation	80	(1)
Concentrated Liquid Products	80	(2)
Evaporation as a Preparatory Step to Further Processing	82	(1)
The Use of Evaporation to Reduce Transport, Storage and Packaging Costs	83	(2)
Dehydration (Drying)	85	(40)
General Principles	85	(1)
Drying Solid Foods in Heated Air	86	(2)
Equipment Used in Hot Air Drying of Solid Food Pieces	88	(1)
Cabinet (Tray) Drier	88	(1)
Tunnel Drier	89	(1)
Conveyor (Belt) Drier	89	(1)
Bin Drier	90	(1)
Fluidised Bed Drier	90	(3)
Pneumatic (Flash) Drier	93	(1)
Rotary Drier	93	(1)
Drying of Solid Foods by Direct Contact with a Heated Surface	94	(1)
Equipment Used in Drying Solid Foods by Contact with a Heated Surface	95	(1)
Vacuum Cabinet (Tray or Shelf) Drier	95	(1)
Double Cone Vacuum Drier	95	(1)
Freeze Drying (Sublimation Drying, Lyophilisation) of Solid Foods	96	(1)
Equipment Used in Freeze Drying Solid Foods	97	(1)
Cabinet (Batch) Freeze Drier	97	(1)
Tunnel (SemiContinuous) Freeze Drier	98	(1)
Continuous Freeze Driers	99	(1)
Vacuum Spray Freeze Drier	99	(1)
Drying by the Application of Radiant (Infrared) Heat	100	(1)
Drying by the Application of Dielectric Energy	100	(2)
Osmotic Dehydration	102	(2)
Sun and Solar Drying	104	(1)
Drying Food Liquids and Slurries in Heated Air	105	(1)
Spray Drying	105	(5)
Drying Liquids and Slurries by Direct Contact with a Heated Surface	110	(1)
Drum (Roller, Film) Drier	110	(2)
Vacuum Band (Belt) Drier	112	(1)
Other Methods Used for Drying Liquids and Slurries	113	(1)
Applications of Dehydration	114	(1)
Dehydrated Vegetable Products	114	(2)
Dehydrated Fruit Products	116	(1)
Dehydrated Dairy Products	117	(1)
Instant Coffee and Tea	118	(1)
Dehydrated Meat Products	118	(1)
Dehydrated Fish Products	119	(1)
Stability of Dehydrated Foods	119	(2)
References	121	(4)
Freezing	125	(22)
Jose Mauricio Pardo
Keshavan Niranjan
Introduction	125	(1)
Refrigeration Methods and Equipment	125	(2)
Plate Contact Systems	126	(1)
Immersion and Liquid Contact Refrigeration	127	(1)
Cryogenic freezing	127	(1)
Low Temperature Production	127	(11)
Mechanical Refrigeration Cycle	129	(2)
The Real Refrigeration Cycle (Standard Vapour Compression Cycle)	131	(1)
Equipment for a Mechanical Refrigeration System	132	(1)
Evaporators	132	(1)
Condensers	133	(2)
Compressors	135	(1)
Expansion Valves	135	(1)
Refrigerants	136	(1)
Common Terms Used in Refrigeration System Design	137	(1)
Cooling Load	137	(1)
Coefficient of Performance (COP)	137	(1)
Refrigerant Flow Rate	138	(1)
Work Done by the Compressor	138	(1)
Heat Exchanged in the Condenser and Evaporator	138	(1)
Freezing Kinetics	138	(5)
Formation of the Microstructure During Solidification	140	(1)
Mathematical Models for Freezing Kinetics	141	(1)
Neumann's Model	141	(1)
Plank's Model	142	(1)
Cleland's Model	142	(1)
Effects of Refrigeration on Food Quality	143	(4)
References	144	(3)
Irradiation	147	(26)
Alistair S. Grandison
Introduction	147	(1)
Principles of Irradiation	147	(7)
Physical Effects	148	(4)
Chemical Effects	152	(1)
Biological Effects	153	(1)
Equipment	154	(6)
Isotope Sources	154	(3)
Machine Sources	157	(2)
Control and Dosimetry	159	(1)
Safety Aspects	160	(1)
Effects on the Properties of Food	160	(2)
Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods	162	(1)
Applications and Potential Applications	163	(10)
General Effects and Mechanisms of Irradiation	164	(1)
Inactivation of Microorganisms	164	(2)
Inhibition of Sprouting	166	(1)
Delay of Ripening and Senescence	166	(1)
Insect Disinfestation	166	(1)
Elimination of Parasites	167	(1)
Miscellaneous Effects on Food Properties and Processing	167	(1)
Combination Treatments	167	(1)
Applications to Particular Food Classes	167	(1)
Meat and Meat Products	167	(2)
Fish and Shellfish	169	(1)
Fruits and Vegetables	169	(1)
Bulbs and Tubers	170	(1)
Spices and Herbs	170	(1)
Cereals and Cereal Products	170	(1)
Other Miscellaneous Foods	170	(1)
References	171	(2)
High Pressure Processing	173	(28)
Margaret F. Patterson
Dave A. Ledward
Nigel Rogers
Introduction	173	(3)
Effect of High Pressure on Microorganisms	176	(5)
Bacterial Spores	176	(1)
Vegetative Bacteria	177	(1)
Yeasts and Moulds	177	(1)
Viruses	178	(1)
Strain Variation Within a Species	178	(1)
Stage of Growth of Microorganisms	178	(1)
Magnitude and Duration of the Pressure Treatment	179	(1)
Effect of Temperature on Pressure Resistance	179	(1)
Substrate	179	(1)
Combination Treatments Involving Pressure	180	(1)
Effect of High Pressure on the Microbiological Quality of Foods	180	(1)
Ingredient Functionality	181	(2)
Enzyme Activity	183	(2)
Foaming and Emulsification	185	(2)
Gelation	187	(2)
Organoleptic Considerations	189	(1)
Equipment for HPP	190	(3)
`Continuous' System	190	(1)
`Batch' System	191	(2)
Pressure Vessel Considerations	193	(2)
HP Pumps	194	(1)
Control Systems	195	(1)
Current and Potential Applications of HPP for Foods	195	(6)
References	197	(4)
Pulsed Electric Field Processing, Power Ultrasound and Other Emerging Technologies	201	(36)
Craig E. Leadley
Alan Williams
Introduction	201	(2)
Pulsed Electric Field Processing	203	(11)
Definition of Pulsed Electric Fields	203	(1)
Pulsed Electric Field Processing -- A Brief History	203	(1)
Effects of PEF on Microorganisms	204	(1)
Electrical Breakdown	204	(1)
Electroporation	205	(1)
Critical Factors in the Inactivation of Microorganisms, Using PEF	205	(1)
Process Factors	205	(1)
Product Factors	206	(1)
Microbial Factors	206	(1)
Effects of PEF on Food Enzymes	206	(2)
Basic Engineering Aspects of PEF	208	(1)
Pulse Shapes	208	(2)
Chamber Designs	210	(1)
Potential Applications for PEF	211	(1)
Preservation Applications	211	(1)
Nonpreservation Applications	212	(1)
The Future for PEF	213	(1)
Power Ultrasound	214	(15)
Definition of Power Ultrasound	214	(1)
Generation of Power Ultrasound	215	(1)
System Types	216	(1)
Ultrasonic Baths	216	(1)
Ultrasonic Probes	216	(1)
Parallel Vibrating Plates	217	(1)
Radial Vibrating Systems	217	(1)
Airborne Power Ultrasound Technology	217	(1)
Applications for Power Ultrasound in the Food Industry	218	(1)
Ultrasonically Enhanced Oxidation	218	(1)
Ultrasonic Stimulation of Living Cells	218	(2)
Ultrasonic Emulsification	220	(1)
Ultrasonic Extraction	220	(1)
Ultrasound and Meat Processing	220	(1)
Crystallisation	220	(1)
Degassing	221	(1)
Filtration	221	(1)
Drying	222	(1)
Effect of Ultrasound on Heat Transfer	222	(1)
Inactivation of Microorganisms Using Power Ultrasound	222	(1)
Mechanism of Ultrasound Action	222	(1)
Factors Affecting Cavitation	223	(1)
Factors Affecting Microbiological Sensitivity to Ultrasound	224	(1)
Effect of Treatment Medium	224	(1)
Combination Treatments	225	(2)
Effect of Power Ultrasound on Enzymes	227	(1)
Effects of Ultrasound on Food Quality	227	(1)
The Future for Power Ultrasound	228	(1)
Other Technologies with Potential	229	(2)
Pulsed Light	229	(1)
High Voltage Arc Discharge	230	(1)
Oscillating Magnetic Fields	230	(1)
Plasma Processing	230	(1)
Pasteurisation Using Carbon Dioxide	231	(1)
Conclusions	231	(6)
References	232	(5)
Baking, Extrusion and Frying	237	(54)
Bogdan J. Dobraszczyk
Paul Ainsworth
Senol Ibanoglu
Pedro Bouchon
Baking Bread	237	(14)
General Principles	237	(1)
Methods of Bread Production	238	(1)
Bulk Fermentation	239	(1)
Chorleywood Bread Process	239	(3)
The Baking Process	242	(1)
Mixing	242	(1)
Fermentation (Proof)	242	(1)
Baking	243	(1)
Gluten Polymer Structure, Rheology and Baking	244	(5)
Baking Quality and Rheology	249	(2)
Extrusion	251	(18)
General Principles	251	(1)
The Extrusion Process	252	(1)
Advantages of the Extrusion Process	253	(1)
Extrusion Equipment	254	(1)
Single-Screw Extruders	255	(1)
Twin-Screw Extruders	256	(2)
Comparison of Single- and Twin-Screw Extruders	258	(1)
Effects of Extrusion on the Properties of Foods	259	(1)
Extrusion of Starch-Based Products	259	(5)
Nutritional Changes	264	(3)
Flavour Formation and Retention During Extrusion	267	(2)
Frying	269	(22)
General Principles	269	(1)
The Frying Process	270	(1)
Fried Products	270	(2)
Frying Equipment	272	(1)
Batch Frying Equipment	272	(1)
Continuous Frying Equipment	272	(1)
Oil-Reducing System	273	(1)
Frying Oils	274	(1)
Potato Chip and Potato Crisp Production	275	(1)
Potato Chip Production	276	(1)
Potato Crisp Production	277	(1)
Heat and Mass Transfer During Deep-Fat Frying	278	(1)
Modelling Deep-Fat Frying	279	(1)
Kinetics of Oil Uptake	280	(1)
Factors Affecting Oil Absorption	280	(1)
Microstructural Changes During Deep-Fat Frying	281	(2)
References	283	(8)
Packaging	291	(60)
James G. Brennan
Brian P. F. Day
Introduction	291	(1)
Factors Affecting the Choice of a Packaging Material and/or Container for a Particular Duty	292	(8)
Mechanical Damage	292	(1)
Permeability Characteristics	292	(2)
Greaseproofness	294	(1)
Temperature	294	(1)
Light	295	(1)
Chemical Compatibility of the Packaging Material and the Contents of the Package	295	(2)
Protection Against Microbial Contamination	297	(1)
In-Package Microflora	297	(1)
Protection Against Insect and Rodent Infestation	297	(1)
Taint	298	(1)
Tamper-Evident/Resistant Packages	299	(1)
Other Factors	299	(1)
Materials and Containers Used for Packaging Foods	300	(25)
Papers, Paperboards and Fibreboards	300	(1)
Papers	300	(1)
Paperboards	301	(1)
Moulded Pulp	302	(1)
Fibreboards	302	(1)
Composite Containers	303	(1)
Wooden Containers	303	(1)
Textiles	303	(1)
Flexible Films	304	(1)
Regenerated Cellulose	305	(1)
Cellulose Acetate	306	(1)
Polyethylene	306	(1)
Polyvinyl Chloride	306	(1)
Polyvinylidene Chloride	307	(1)
Polypropylene	307	(1)
Polyester	308	(1)
Polystyrene	308	(1)
Polyamides	308	(1)
Polycarbonate	309	(1)
Polytetrafluoroethylene	309	(1)
Ionomers	309	(1)
Ethylene-vinyl Acetate Copolymers	309	(1)
Metallised Films	310	(1)
Flexible Laminates	310	(1)
Heat-Sealing Equipment	311	(1)
Packaging in Flexible Films and Laminates	312	(2)
Rigid and Semirigid Plastic Containers	314	(1)
Thermoforming	314	(1)
Blow Moulding	315	(1)
Injection Moulding	315	(1)
Compression Moulding	315	(1)
Metal Materials and Containers	315	(1)
Aluminium Foil	316	(1)
Tinplate	316	(3)
Electrolytic Chromium-Coated Steel	319	(1)
Aluminium Alloy	319	(1)
Metal Containers	320	(2)
Glass and Glass Containers	322	(3)
Modified Atmosphere Packaging	325	(4)
Aseptic Packaging	329	(2)
Active Packaging	331	(20)
Background Information	331	(3)
Oxygen Scavengers	334	(3)
Carbon Dioxide Scavengers/Emitters	337	(1)
Ethylene Scavengers	337	(2)
Ethanol Emitters	339	(1)
Preservative Releasers	340	(1)
Moisture Absorbers	341	(1)
Flavour/Odour Adsorbers	342	(1)
Temperature Control Packaging	343	(1)
Food Safety, Consumer Acceptability and Regulatory Issues	344	(1)
Conclusions	345	(1)
References	346	(5)
Safety in Food Processing	351	(22)
Carol A. Wallace
Introduction	351	(1)
Safe Design	351	(4)
Food Safety Hazards	352	(2)
Intrinsic Factors	354	(1)
Food Processing Technologies	355	(1)
Food Packaging Issues	355	(1)
Prerequisite Good Manufacturing Practice Programmes	355	(7)
Prerequisite Programmes -- The Essentials	357	(4)
Validation and Verification of Prerequisite Programmes	361	(1)
HACCP, the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System	362	(11)
Developing a HACCP System	362	(8)
Implementing and Maintaining a HACCP System	370	(1)
Ongoing Control of Food Safety in Processing	370	(1)
References	371	(2)
Process Control in Food Processing	373	(12)
Keshavan Niranjan
Araya Ahromrit
Ahok S. Khare
Introduction	373	(1)
Measurement of Process Parameters	373	(1)
Control Systems	374	(6)
Manual Control	374	(2)
Automatic Control	376	(1)
On/Off (Two Position) Controller	376	(1)
Proportional Controller	377	(1)
Proportional Integral Controller	378	(1)
Proportional Integral Derivative Controller	379	(1)
Process Control in Modern Food Processing	380	(4)
Programmable Logic Controller	381	(1)
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition	381	(1)
Manufacturing Execution Systems	382	(2)
Concluding Remarks	384	(1)
References	384	(1)
Environmental Aspects of Food Processing	385	(14)
Niharika Mishra
Ali Abd El-Aal Bakr
Keshavan Niranjan
Introduction	385	(1)
Waste Characteristics	386	(1)
Solid Wastes	387	(1)
Liquid Wastes	387	(1)
Gaseous Wastes	387	(1)
Wastewater Processing Technology	387	(1)
Resource Recovery From Food Processing Wastes	388	(1)
Environmental Impact of Packaging Wastes	389	(3)
Packaging Minimisation	389	(1)
Packaging Materials Recycling	390	(2)
Refrigerents	392	(2)
Energy Issues Related to Environment	394	(2)
Life Cycle Assessment	396	(3)
References	397	(2)
Water and Waste Treatment	399	(30)
R. Andrew Wilbey
Introduction	399	(1)
Fresh Water	399	(11)
Primary Treatment	400	(1)
Aeration	401	(1)
Coagulation, Flocculation and Clarification	401	(2)
Filtration	403	(3)
Disinfection	406	(1)
Chlorination	406	(2)
Ozone	408	(1)
Boiler Waters	409	(1)
Refrigerant Waters	410	(1)
Waste Water	410	(15)
Types of Waste from Food Processing Operations	411	(1)
Physical Treatment	412	(1)
Chemical Treatment	413	(1)
Biological Treatments	413	(1)
Aerobic Treatment -- Attached Films	414	(3)
Aerobic Treatment -- Suspended Biomass	417	(2)
Aerobic Treatment -- Low Technology	419	(1)
Anaerobic Treatments	419	(5)
Biogas Utilisation	424	(1)
Sludge Disposal	425	(1)
Final Disposal of Waste Water	425	(4)
References	426	(3)
Separations in Food Processing	429	(84)
James G. Brennan
Alistair S. Grandison
Michael J. Lewis
Introduction	429	(3)
Separations from Solids	430	(1)
Solid-Solid Separations	430	(1)
Separation From a Solid Matrix	430	(1)
Separations From Liquids	430	(1)
Liquid-Solid Separations	431	(1)
Immiscible Liquids	431	(1)
General Liquid Separations	431	(1)
Separations From Gases and Vapours	432	(1)
Solid-Liquid Filtration	432	(12)
General Principles	432	(2)
Filter Media	434	(1)
Filter Aids	434	(1)
Filtration Equipment	435	(1)
Pressure Filters	435	(4)
Vacuum Filters	439	(1)
Centrifugal Filters (Filtering Centrifugals, Basket Centrifuges)	440	(2)
Applications of Filtration in Food Processing	442	(1)
Edible Oil Refining	442	(1)
Sugar Refining	442	(1)
Beer Production	443	(1)
Wine Making	443	(1)
Centrifugation	444	(8)
General Principles	444	(1)
Separation of Immiscible Liquids	444	(2)
Separation of Insoluble Solids from Liquids	446	(1)
Centrifugal Equipment	447	(1)
Liquid-Liquid Centrifugal Separators	447	(1)
Solid-Liquid Centrifugal Separators	448	(2)
Applications for Centrifugation in Food Processing	450	(1)
Milk Products	450	(1)
Edible Oil Refining	451	(1)
Beer Production	451	(1)
Wine Making	451	(1)
Fruit Juice Processing	451	(1)
Solid-Liquid Extraction (Leaching)	452	(10)
General Principles	452	(3)
Extraction Equipment	455	(1)
Single-Stage Extractors	455	(1)
Multistage Static Bed Extractors	456	(1)
Multistage Moving Bed Extractors	457	(2)
Applications for Solid-Liquid Extraction in Food Processing	459	(1)
Edible Oil Extraction	459	(1)
Extraction of Sugar from Sugar Beet	459	(1)
Manufacture of Instant Coffee	459	(1)
Manufacture of Instant Tea	460	(1)
Fruit and Vegetable Juice Extraction	460	(1)
The Use of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent	460	(2)
Distillation	462	(9)
General Principles	462	(4)
Distillation Equipment	466	(1)
Pot Stills	466	(1)
Continuous Distillation (Fractionating) Columns	466	(1)
Applications of Distillation in Food Processing	467	(1)
Manufacture of Whisky	467	(2)
Manufacture of Neutral Spirits	469	(2)
Crystallisation	471	(7)
General Principles	471	(1)
Crystal Structure	471	(1)
The Crystallisation Process	471	(4)
Equipment Used in Crystallisation Operations	475	(1)
Food Industry Applications	476	(1)
Production of Sugar	476	(1)
Production of Salt	477	(1)
Salad Dressings and Mayonnaise	477	(1)
Margarine and Pastry Fats	477	(1)
Freeze Concentration	477	(1)
Membrane Processes	478	(17)
Introduction	478	(1)
Terminology	479	(1)
Membrane Characteristics	480	(1)
Flux Rate	481	(1)
Transport Phenomena and Concentration Polarisation	481	(2)
Membrane Equipment	483	(1)
Membrane Configuration	483	(3)
Safety and Hygiene Considerations	486	(2)
Applications for Reverse Osmosis	488	(1)
Milk Processing	488	(1)
Other Foods	489	(1)
Applications for Nanofiltration	489	(1)
Applications for Ultrafiltration	490	(1)
Milk Products	490	(2)
Oilseed and Vegetable Proteins	492	(1)
Animal Products	492	(1)
Applications for Microfiltration	493	(2)
Ion Exchange	495	(9)
General Principles	495	(2)
Ion Exchange Equipment	497	(3)
Applications of Ion Exchange in the Food Industry	500	(1)
Softening and Demineralisation	500	(2)
Decolourisation	502	(1)
Protein Purification	502	(1)
Other Separations	503	(1)
Conclusion	504	(1)
Electrodialysis	504	(9)
General Principles and Equipment	504	(2)
Applications for Electrodialysis	506	(1)
References	507	(6)
Mixing, Emulsification and Size Reduction	513	(46)
James G. Brennan
Mixing (Agitation, Blending)	513	(11)
Introduction	513	(1)
Mixing of Low and Moderate Viscosity Liquids	513	(2)
Paddle Mixer	515	(1)
Turbine Mixer	515	(1)
Propeller Mixer	516	(1)
Mixing of High Viscosity Liquids, Pastes and Plastic Solids	517	(2)
Paddle Mixers	519	(1)
Pan (Bowl, Can) Mixers	519	(1)
Kneaders (Dispersers, Masticators)	519	(1)
Continuous Mixers for Pastelike Materials	519	(1)
Static Inline Mixers	520	(1)
Mixing Dry, Particulate Solids	520	(1)
Horizontal Screw and Ribbon Mixers	521	(1)
Vertical Screw Mixers	522	(1)
Tumbling Mixers	522	(1)
Fluidised Bed Mixers	523	(1)
Mixing of Gases and Liquids	523	(1)
Applications for Mixing in Food Processing	524	(1)
Low Viscosity Liquids	524	(1)
Viscous Materials	524	(1)
Particulate Solids	524	(1)
Gases into Liquids	524	(1)
Emulsification	524	(13)
Introduction	524	(2)
Emulsifying Agents	526	(1)
Emulsifying Equipment	527	(1)
Mixers	527	(1)
Pressure Homogenisers	528	(2)
Hydroshear Homogenisers	530	(1)
Microfluidisers	530	(1)
Membrane Homogenisers	530	(1)
Ultrasonic Homogenisers	530	(1)
Colloid Mills	531	(1)
Examples of Emulsification in Food Processing	532	(1)
Milk	532	(1)
Ice Cream Mix	533	(1)
Cream Liqueurs	533	(1)
Coffee/Tea Whiteners	533	(1)
Salad Dressings	534	(1)
Meat Products	534	(1)
Cake Products	535	(1)
Butter	535	(1)
Margarine and Spreads	536	(1)
Size Reduction (Crushing, Comminution, Grinding, Milling) of Solids	537	(22)
Introduction	537	(3)
Size Reduction Equipment	540	(1)
Some Factors to Consider When Selecting Size Reduction Equipment	540	(1)
Roller Mills (Crushing Rolls)	541	(3)
Impact (Percussion) Mills	544	(2)
Attrition Mills	546	(2)
Tumbling Mills	548	(2)
Examples of Size Reduction of Solids in Food Processing	550	(1)
Cereals	550	(2)
Chocolate	552	(2)
Coffee Beans	554	(1)
Oil Seeds and Nuts	554	(1)
Sugar Cane	555	(1)
References	556	(3)
Subject Index	559