Forest Health And Protection

by Edmonds, Robert L.; Agee, James K.; Gara, Robert I.

• ISBN13: 9781577663966
• ISBN10: 1577663969
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-02-10
• Publisher: Waveland Pr Inc

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
The Concept of Forest Health	1	(22)
Introduction	1	(1)
Definitions of Forest Health	2	(1)
Characteristics of a Healthy Forest	3	(1)
Symptoms of Forest Health Problems	4	(2)
Possible Causes of Forest Health Problems	6	(1)
Current Health Status of the World's Forests	6	(3)
The Influence of Forest Management and Other	9	(1)
Human Activities on Forest Health: Case Studies	9	(6)
The Inland Western United States	9	(2)
The Influence of Introduced Pathogens and Insects on Forest Health	11	(1)
The Influence of Air Pollution on Forest Health	12	(3)
Forest Health Monitoring Networks	15	(4)
The U.S. National Forest Health Monitoring Network	15	(2)
Forest Health Monitoring in Western Europe	17	(1)
The Acid Rain National Early Warning System (ARNEWS) in Canada	18	(1)
Conclusions	19	(1)
References	20	(3)
Ecological Principles	23	(26)
Introduction	23	(1)
Forest Biomes	24	(5)
Forest Zonation	25	(2)
Forest Classification by Current and Potential Vegetation	27	(2)
Production Ecology	29	(4)
Succession	33	(11)
The Complex Nature of Disturbance	34	(2)
Multiple Pathway Succession	36	(6)
Ecological Diversity and Sustainability	42	(1)
Stability and Equilibrium	43	(1)
Ecosystem Management	44	(3)
Coarse and Fine Filter Approaches	45	(1)
Island Biogeography and Forest Health	46	(1)
References	47	(2)
Fire as a Physical Process	49	(22)
Introduction	49	(1)
The Elements of Fire Behavior	49	(9)
Weather	50	(4)
Topography	54	(1)
Fuels	54	(4)
Fire Behavior Prediction	58	(11)
Surface Fire Behavior	58	(5)
Crown Fire Behavior	63	(3)
Spotting	66	(1)
Geographic Information Systems and Fire	67	(1)
Fire Danger Rating	67	(2)
References	69	(2)
Fire Ecology and Fire Regimes	71	(31)
Introduction	71	(1)
Fire Adaptations of Plants	71	(3)
Predicting Tree Mortality from Fire	74	(3)
Fire Regimes of North America	77	(3)
Ponderosa Pine Forests	80	(3)
The Fire Regime	81	(1)
Stand Development Patterns	81	(2)
Coastal Douglas-Fir Forests	83	(4)
The Fire Regime	83	(1)
Stand Development Patterns	84	(3)
Western Subalpine Forests	87	(5)
The Fire Regime	88	(1)
Stand Development Patterns	89	(3)
Longleaf Pine Forests	92	(2)
The Fire Regime	93	(1)
Stand Development Patterns	93	(1)
Jack Pine Forests	94	(4)
The Fire Regime	95	(1)
Stand Development Patterns	96	(2)
References	98	(4)
Organizing for Fire Management	102	(28)
Introduction	102	(1)
Evolution of Fire Policy	103	(3)
Responsibilities for Fire Protection	106	(2)
Fire Prevention and Detection	108	(4)
Fire Prevention	108	(2)
Fire Detection	110	(2)
Fire Suppression	112	(11)
Fire Control Organization	112	(2)
Fire Suppression Strategies	114	(3)
Fire Equipment	117	(4)
Safety in Suppression	121	(2)
Wildland Fire Rehabilitation	123	(2)
The Urban Wildland Interface	125	(2)
References	127	(3)
Fire Strategies for Forest Health	130	(30)
Introduction	130	(1)
Forest Structure and Fire Behavior	131	(8)
Increasing Height to Crown Base	131	(1)
Reducing Surface Fuels	132	(1)
Managing Crown Structure to Prevent Fire Spread	133	(2)
Fuel Treatments for Forest Health	135	(4)
Prescribed Fire	139	(9)
Firing Techniques	139	(3)
Methods of Ignition	142	(1)
The Prescribed Fire Plan	143	(4)
Prescribed Fire and Fuelbreaks	147	(1)
Managed Wildland Fire (pnf)	148	(7)
Planning for Managed Wildland Fire (pnf)	150	(2)
Operations	152	(1)
The Future of Wilderness Fire	153	(2)
Constraints To Fire Use	155	(3)
Smoke	155	(2)
The Escaped Fire	157	(1)
The Fine Filter for Special Resources	157	(1)
References	158	(2)
Wind and Forest Health	160	(25)
Introduction	160	(1)
Wind as a Physical Process	160	(3)
Wind Effects on Trees	163	(10)
Crown Morphology	163	(2)
Stem and Root Shape	165	(1)
Windsnap (Stem Breakage) and Windthrow (Uprooting)	165	(3)
Wind Effects on Forest Succession	168	(1)
Case Study: Pacific Northwest Spruce-Hemlock Forests	169	(1)
Case Study: Northeast Hardwood--White Pine--Eastern Hemlock	170	(2)
Case Study: Southern Pines	172	(1)
Forest Management Strategies	173	(8)
Shelterbelts	173	(1)
Windthrow Hazard Identification	174	(2)
Site Preparation and Planting	176	(1)
Thinning	176	(1)
Pruning	176	(1)
Clearcuts	177	(3)
Stream Buffers, Interior Leave Patches, and Other Retention Strategies	180	(1)
Synergistic Effects	181	(1)
References	182	(3)
Introduction to Diseases	185	(14)
Introduction	185	(2)
Definition of Disease and Types of Diseases	187	(1)
A Brief History of Forest Pathology	188	(2)
Impact of Diseases	190	(1)
The Disease Triangle, Square, or Tetrahedron	191	(1)
The Concept of Pathogens, Parasites, Saprophytes, and Symbiotic Relationships	192	(1)
Signs and Symptoms of Disease	193	(2)
Linkages Between Diseases, Insects, Fire, and Wind	195	(1)
Diseases in Urban Forests and Street Trees	196	(1)
Forest Pathology Books	196	(1)
References	197	(2)
Abiotic (Nonbiological) and Animal-Caused Injuries	199	(29)
Introduction	199	(1)
The Pattern of Abiotic Injuries	199	(1)
Injuries Caused by Temperature Extremes	200	(2)
Low and High Moisture and Low Soil Oxygen	202	(1)
Global Change	203	(1)
Air Pollution	204	(10)
Types of Air Pollutants	204	(3)
Dispersion of Air Pollutants	207	(2)
Damage Caused by Air Pollutants	209	(3)
Effects of Acid Precipitation	212	(1)
Management of Air Pollution Problems	212	(2)
Herbicides	214	(1)
Mechanical Injuries	215	(2)
Nutrient Deficiencies	217	(3)
Nutrient Imbalances and Elemental Toxicities	220	(1)
Fire	221	(1)
Salt Injury	221	(1)
Animal Damage	222	(4)
Seed Eaters	223	(1)
Voles	224	(1)
Deer and Elk	224	(1)
Tree Squirrels	224	(1)
Porcupines	224	(1)
Black Bears	225	(1)
Pocket Gophers	225	(1)
Mountain Beavers	225	(1)
Snowshoe Hares	226	(1)
Livestock	226	(1)
References	226	(2)
Disease-Causing Organisms	228	(26)
Introduction	228	(1)
Features of Disease-Causing Organisms	228	(9)
Fungi	228	(3)
Parasitic Plants	231	(2)
Bacteria	233	(1)
Viruses and Viroids	233	(1)
Phytoplasmas	234	(1)
Nematodes	235	(2)
Classification, Life Cycles, and Diseases Caused by Fungi	237	(14)
Zygomycota	240	(1)
Ascomycota and Deuteromycetes (Imperfect Fungi)	241	(4)
Basidiomycota	245	(2)
Oomycota	247	(4)
Spread and Ecology of Fungi	251	(2)
References	253	(1)
Nursery Diseases and Mycorrhizae	254	(21)
Introduction	254	(1)
Selection of Nursery Sites	255	(1)
Abiotic Injuries	255	(2)
Low-Temperature Injuries	256	(1)
High-Temperature Injuries	256	(1)
Biotic Diseases	257	(7)
Diseases Affecting Seeds, Roots, or Root Collar Areas	257	(4)
Diseases Affecting Shoots	261	(3)
Management of Seedling Diseases	264	(2)
Mycorrhizae	266	(7)
Roles of Mycorrhizae	270	(1)
Management of Ectomycorrhizae	271	(2)
References	273	(2)
Root Diseases	275	(34)
Introduction	275	(1)
Types and Causes of Root Diseases	276	(4)
Structural Root Diseases	276	(1)
Feeder and Vascular Root Diseases	277	(3)
Symptoms, Signs, Hosts, Distribution, and Spread of Root Diseases	280	(16)
Structural Root Diseases	280	(14)
Feeder Root Diseases	294	(1)
Vascular Root Diseases	295	(1)
Interactions Between Root Diseases, Insects, and Fire	296	(1)
Root Disease Management	297	(7)
Inoculum Reduction	297	(1)
Use of Resistant Species	298	(2)
Genetic Resistance	300	(1)
Chemical Treatment of Stumps	300	(1)
Biological Control	301	(1)
Thinning	301	(1)
Fertilization	302	(1)
Avoidance of High-Hazard Sites	302	(1)
Natural Climatic Controls	302	(1)
Prescribed Fire	303	(1)
Quarantine	303	(1)
Doing Nothing or Passive Management	304	(1)
Modeling of Root Diseases and Disease/Bark Beetle Interactions	304	(2)
Conclusions	306	(1)
References	307	(2)
Foliage Diseases and Rusts	309	(24)
Introduction	309	(1)
Foliage Diseases	309	(14)
Typical Symptoms	310	(3)
The Life Cycle of Foliage Pathogens	313	(1)
Specific Hardwood Foliage Diseases	313	(5)
Specific Conifer Foliage Diseases	318	(5)
Rusts	323	(8)
Rust Life Cycles	327	(2)
Management of Rust Diseases	329	(2)
References	331	(2)
Stem and Branch Diseases	333	(31)
Introduction	333	(1)
Mistletoes	333	(8)
Dwarf Mistletoe Infection Rating Scheme	338	(1)
Ecological Relationships	338	(1)
Management	339	(2)
Cankers	341	(6)
Cankers on Hardwoods	341	(5)
Cankers on Conifers	346	(1)
Galls and Other Malformations	347	(1)
Decay	348	(10)
Types of Decay	348	(1)
Decay Terminology	349	(1)
Important Decay Fungi	350	(1)
Spread of Decay Fungi	350	(4)
The Concept of Compartmentalization of Decay in Trees (CODIT)	354	(2)
Ecological Role of Decays	356	(1)
Management of Decay Fungi	357	(1)
Vascular Wilts	358	(4)
Dutch Elm Disease	358	(4)
Oak Wilt	362	(1)
Stains	362	(1)
References	362	(2)
Forest Declines	364	(19)
Introduction	364	(4)
The Concept of Decline Diseases	368	(13)
The Environmental Stress and Secondary Organisms Theory	368	(1)
The Concept of Predisposing, Inciting, and Contributing Factors	369	(1)
The Climate Change or Climate Perturbation Theory	369	(6)
The Air Pollution Theory	375	(1)
The Ecological Theory	376	(5)
References	381	(2)
Management of Forest Diseases and the Deterioration of Wood Products	383	(15)
Introduction	383	(1)
Forest Disease Management	383	(7)
Disease Detection, Recognition, and Appraisal	383	(1)
Major Management Strategies	384	(1)
Silvicultural Management	384	(6)
Integration of Disease, Insect, and Fire Management	390	(1)
Modeling Forest Diseases	390	(3)
Wood Products Deterioration	393	(3)
References	396	(2)
Introduction to Forest Entomology	398	(15)
Introduction	398	(3)
Historical Perspective	401	(8)
Europe	403	(2)
North America	405	(4)
The Future of Forest Entomology	409	(1)
References	410	(3)
Basic Entomology	413	(23)
Introduction	413	(1)
The Arthropoda	414	(4)
The Chelicerata	414	(3)
The Mandibulata	417	(1)
The Insects	418	(8)
External Morphology	418	(3)
Internal Morphology	421	(3)
Insect Development	424	(2)
Insect Orders	426	(9)
The Collembola (Springtails)	426	(4)
The Ephemeroptera (Mayflies)	430	(1)
The Odonata (Dragonflies and Damselflies)	430	(1)
The Plecoptera (Stone flies)	430	(1)
The Dictyoptera (Suborder Isoptera) (Termites)	431	(1)
The Orthoptera and Other Dictyoptera (Crickets, Grasshoppers, Walking Sticks, Mantids, Roaches, etc.)	431	(1)
The Thysanoptera (Thrips)	432	(1)
The Hemiptera (Suborder Heteroptera) (True Bugs)	432	(1)
The Hemiptera (Suborder Homoptera) (Aphids, Cicadas, Leafhoppers and Planthoppers, and Scales)	432	(1)
The Coleoptera (Beetles)	433	(1)
The Trichoptera (Caddis Flies)	433	(1)
The Lepidoptera (Moths and Butterflies)	433	(1)
The Hymenoptera (Ants, Parasitic Wasps, Bees, Hornets, Sawflies, and Others)	434	(1)
The Neuroptera (Lacewings, Antlions, Alderflies, and Dobsonflies)	435	(1)
The Diptera (Flies)	435	(1)
References	435	(1)
Principles of Forest Insect Management	436	(26)
Introduction	436	(1)
Public Forestry and Forest Health	436	(3)
Timber Management	439	(1)
Insect Pest Management	440	(19)
Mechanical and Physical Control	442	(1)
Chemical Control	442	(5)
Semiochemical Control	447	(2)
Biological Control	449	(8)
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)	457	(2)
References	459	(3)
Insect Defoliators	462	(29)
Introduction	462	(1)
Detection, Evaluation, and Control	463	(6)
Detection	465	(2)
Applied Control	467	(2)
The Defoliators	469	(19)
Eastern and Southern North American Forests	471	(10)
Western North American Forests	481	(7)
References	488	(3)
Bark Beetles and Their Management	491	(25)
Introduction	491	(4)
Associations with Fungi	491	(2)
Biology of Bark Beetles	493	(2)
Management of Bark Beetles	495	(3)
Damage Thresholds	496	(1)
Detection	497	(1)
Pest Control Strategies	497	(1)
The Dendroctonus	498	(10)
The Southern Pine Beetle (D. frontalis)	498	(4)
The Mountain Pine Beetle (D. ponderosae)	502	(2)
The Douglas-Fir beetle (D. pseudotsugae)	504	(1)
The Spruce Beetle (D. rufipennis)	505	(1)
The Western Pine Beetle (D. brevicomis)	506	(2)
The Engraver Beetles (Ips and Scolytus)	508	(6)
The Engraver Beetles (Ips spp.)	508	(4)
The Scolytus Engraver Beetles	512	(2)
References	514	(2)
Ambrosia Beetles and Their Management	516	(10)
Introduction	516	(1)
Ambrosia Beetles and Softwoods	517	(5)
Ambrosia Beetles and Hardwoods	522	(2)
References	524	(2)
Wood Products Insects	526	(17)
Introduction	526	(16)
Borers of Living Trees	526	(4)
Borers of Weakened Trees, Windthrows, and Logs	530	(6)
Borers of Dry and Seasoned Wood	536	(6)
References	542	(1)
Insects of Seed Orchards, Nurseries, and Young Plantations	543	(18)
Introduction	543	(1)
Seed Orchards	544	(4)
Nurseries	548	(5)
Plantations	553	(7)
References	560	(1)
Forest Insect Quarantine	561	(10)
Introduction	561	(5)
Regulations on Importation of Logs and Wood Products	566	(3)
References	569	(2)
Glossary	571	(20)
Credits	591	(2)
Index	593