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1 Getting Started 1
1.1 Using Thermodynamics 2
1.2 Defining Systems 2
1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 6
1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 8
1.5 Specific Volume 11
1.6 Pressure 12
1.7 Temperature 15
1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 19
1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems 20
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 22
2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 23
2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 24
2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 27
2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 36
2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 37
2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed Systems 41
2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 50
2.7 Energy Storage 53
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 55
3 Evaluating Properties 57
3.1 Getting Started 58
3.2 p–υ–T Relation 59
3.3 Studying Phase Change 63
3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 65
3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specific Volume, and Temperature 66
3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy 72
3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Software 74
3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Software 76
3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cυ and cp 80
3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 82
3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 85
3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 90
3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases 92
3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specific Heats, and Software 95
3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 100
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 102
4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 105
4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 106
4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 107
4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 109
4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 112
4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 115
4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 117
4.7 Turbines 119
4.8 Compressors and Pumps 122
4.9 Heat Exchangers 126
4.10 Throttling Devices 130
4.11 System Integration 132
4.12 Transient Analysis 135
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 142
5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 145
5.1 Introducing the Second Law 146
5.2 Statements of the Second Law 149
5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 151
5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 157
5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 158
5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 159
5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 161
5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 163
5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs 166
5.10 Carnot Cycle 171
5.11 Clausius Inequality 173
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 175
6 Using Entropy 177
6.1 Entropy–A System Property 178
6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 179
6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 182
6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance 184
6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 184
6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems 187
6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 190
6.8 Directionality of Processes 196
6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 200
6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 201
6.11 Isentropic Processes 207
6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps 212
6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes 218
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 222
7 Exergy Analysis 225
7.1 Introducing Exergy 226
7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 227
7.3 Exergy of a System 228
7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 233
7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady State 240
7.6 Exergetic (Second Law) Efficiency 249
7.7 Thermoeconomics 253
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 260
8 Vapor Power Systems 261
8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 266
8.2 The Rankine Cycle 268
8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical 279
8.4 Improving Performance—Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle 284
8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 292
8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant 296
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 301
9 Gas Power Systems 303
9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 304
9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 306
9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 311
9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 314
9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 317
9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 318
9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 326
9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 329
9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 339
9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants 344
9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion 346
9.12 Compressible Flow Preliminaries 350
9.13 Analyzing One-Dimensional Steady Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers 353
9.14 Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers of Ideal Gases with Constant Specific Heats 359
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 366
10 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Systems 369
10.1 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 370
10.2 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 372
10.3 Selecting Refrigerants 379
10.4 Other Vapor-Compression Applications 382
10.5 Absorption Refrigeration 385
10.6 Heat Pump Systems 386
10.7 Gas Refrigeration Systems 390
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 396
11 Thermodynamic Relations 399
11.1 Using Equations of State 400
11.2 Important Mathematical Relations 405
11.3 Developing Property Relations 408
11.4 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy 414
11.5 Other Thermodynamic Relations 422
11.6 Constructing Tables of Thermodynamic Properties 428
11.7 Generalized Charts for Enthalpy and Entropy 432
11.8 p–υ–T Relations for Gas Mixtures 438
11.9 Analyzing Multicomponent Systems 442
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 453
12 Ideal Gas Mixture and Psychrometric Applications 457
12.1 Describing Mixture Composition 458
12.2 Relating p, V, and T for Ideal Gas Mixtures 461
12.3 Evaluating U, H, S, and Specific Heats 463
12.4 Analyzing Systems Involving Mixtures 465
12.5 Introducing Psychrometric Principles 474
12.6 Psychrometers: Measuring the Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures 483
12.7 Psychrometric Charts 484
12.8 Analyzing Air-Conditioning Processes 486
12.9 Cooling Towers 499
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 501
13 Reacting Mixtures and Combustion 503
13.1 Introducing Combustion 504
13.2 Conservation of Energy—Reacting Systems 511
13.3 Determining the Adiabatic Flame Temperature 523
13.4 Fuel Cells 526
13.5 Absolute Entropy and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 530
13.6 Conceptualizing Chemical Exergy 536
13.7 Standard Chemical Exergy 540
13.8 Applying Total Exergy 545
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 552
14 Chemical and Phase Equilibrium 555
14.1 Introducing Equilibrium Criteria 556
14.2 Equation of Reaction Equilibrium 560
14.3 Calculating Equilibrium Compositions 562
14.4 Further Examples of the Use of the Equilibrium Constant 570
14.5 Equilibrium between Two Phases of a Pure Substance 578
14.6 Equilibrium of Multicomponent, Multiphase Systems 579
Chapter Summary and Study Guide 583
Appendix Tables, Figures, and Charts A-1
Index to Tables in SI Units A-1
Index to Tables in English Units A-49
Index to Figures and Charts A-97
Index I-1
