Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing

by Kidnay; Arthur J.

• ISBN13: 9780849334061
• ISBN10: 0849334063
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-06-21
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing explores the natural gas industry from the wellhead to the marketplace. This book discusses the advantages, limitations, and ranges of applicability of major gas plant processes to provide an understanding of their selection and integration into the overall gas plant. It covers such topics as field operations, inlet receiving, compression, dehydration, hydrocarbon recovery, nitrogen rejection, liquids processing, sulfur recovery, and liquefied natural gas. It also includes a glossary of gas processing terminology and an appendix on thermophysical properties. This text is ideal for engineers new to the natural gas industry and students of chemical or mechanical engineering.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Overview of Natural Gas Industry	1	(24)
1.1 Introduction	1	(6)
1.1.1 The World Picture for Natural Gas	2	(3)
1.1.2 Natural Gas in United States	5	(2)
1.1.3 Nonconventional Gas Reserves in United States	7	(1)
1.2 Sources of Natural Gas	7	(2)
1.3 Natural Gas Compositions	9	(2)
1.3.1 Traditional Natural Gas	9	(1)
1.3.2 Important Impurities	10	(1)
1.3.3 Coal Bed Methane	10	(1)
1.3.4 Subquality Gas	11	(1)
1.4 Classification	11	(2)
1.4.1 Liquids Content	11	(2)
1.4.2 Sulfur Content	13	(1)
1.5 Processing and Principal Products	13	(3)
1.5.1 Methane	14	(1)
1.5.2 Ethane	14	(1)
1.5.3 Propane	14	(1)
1.5.4 Ethane–Propane Mix	14	(1)
1.5.5 Isobutane	15	(1)
1.5.6 n-Butane	15	(1)
1.5.7 Natural Gas Liquids	15	(1)
1.5.8 Natural Gasoline	15	(1)
1.5.9 Sulfur	15	(1)
1.6 Product Specifications	16	(2)
1.6.1 Natural Gas	16	(1)
1.6.2 Liquid Products	17	(1)
1.7 Combustion Characteristics	18	(3)
1.7.1 Heating Value	18	(2)
1.7.2 Wobbe Number	20	(1)
References	21	(4)
Chapter 2 Overview of Gas Plant Processing	25	(8)
2.1 Roles of Gas Plants	25	(1)
2.2 Plant Processes	26	(3)
2.2.1 Field Operations and Inlet Receiving	26	(1)
2.2.2 Inlet Compression	26	(1)
2.2.3 Gas Treating	26	(1)
2.2.4 Dehydration	27	(1)
2.2.5 Hydrocarbon Recovery	28	(1)
2.2.6 Nitrogen Rejection	28	(1)
2.2.7 Helium Recovery	28	(1)
2.2.8 Outlet Compression	28	(1)
2.2.9 Liquids Processing	28	(1)
2.2.10 Sulfur Recovery	28	(1)
2.2.11 Storage and Transportation	29	(1)
2.2.12 Liquefaction	29	(1)
2.3 Important Support Components	29	(1)
2.3.1 Utilities	29	(1)
2.3.2 Process Control	30	(1)
2.3.3 Safety Systems	30	(1)
2.4 Contractual Agreements and Economics	30	(2)
2.4.1 Fee-Based Contracts	31	(1)
2.4.2 Percentage of Proceeds Contracts	31	(1)
2.4.3 Wellhead Purchase Contracts	31	(1)
2.4.4 Fixed Efficiency Contracts	31	(1)
2.4.5 Keep Whole Contracts	31	(1)
References	32	(1)
Chapter 3 Field Operations and Inlet Receiving	33	(30)
3.1 Introduction	33	(1)
3.2 Field Operations	34	(6)
3.2.1 Wellhead Operations	34	(1)
3.2.2 Piping	35	(1)
3.2.3 Compression Stations	36	(2)
3.2.4 Pigging	38	(2)
3.3 Gas Hydrates	40	(9)
3.3.1 Properties	40	(2)
3.3.2 Hydrate Formation Prediction	42	(2)
3.3.3 Hydrate Inhibition	44	(5)
3.4 Inlet Receiving	49	(11)
3.4.1 Separator Principles	49	(7)
3.4.2 Slug Catcher Configurations	56	(4)
3.5 Safety and Environmental Considerations	60	(1)
References	61	(2)
Chapter 4 Compression	63	(28)
4.1 Introduction	63	(2)
4.2 Fundamentals	65	(6)
4.2.1 Thermodynamics of Compression	65	(3)
4.2.2 Multistaging	68	(1)
4.2.3 Compressor Efficiencies	69	(2)
4.3 Compressor Types	71	(10)
4.3.1 Positive Displacement Compressors	72	(4)
4.3.2 Dynamic Compressors	76	(5)
4.4 Capacity and Power Calculations	81	(6)
4.4.1 Capacity	82	(3)
4.4.2 Power Requirements	85	(2)
4.5 Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors	87	(1)
4.6 Safety and Environmental Considerations	88	(1)
References	89	(2)
Chapter 5 Gas Treating	91	(42)
5.1 Introduction	91	(8)
5.1.1 The Problem	92	(1)
5.1.2 Acid Gas Concentrations in Natural Gas	92	(1)
5.1.3 Purification Levels	93	(1)
5.1.4 Acid Gas Disposal	93	(1)
5.1.5 Purification Processes	94	(5)
5.2 Solvent Absorption Processes	99	(11)
5.2.1 Amines	100	(9)
5.2.2 Alkali Salts	109	(1)
5.3 Physical Absorption	110	(5)
5.3.1 Solvent Properties	110	(2)
5.3.2 Representative Process Conditions	112	(2)
5.3.3 Hybrid Processes	114	(1)
5.4 Adsorption	115	(2)
5.5 Cryogenic Fractionation	117	(2)
5.6 Membranes	119	(8)
5.6.1 Membrane Fundamentals	119	(2)
5.6.2 Carbon Dioxide Removal from Natural Gas	121	(2)
5.6.3 Operating Considerations	123	(3)
5.6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Membrane Systems	126	(1)
5.7 Nonregenerable Hydrogen Sulfide Scavengers	127	(1)
5.8 Biological Processes	128	(1)
5.9 Safety and Environmental Considerations	129	(1)
5.9.1 Amines	129	(1)
5.9.2 Physical Absorption	129	(1)
5.9.3 Adsorption	129	(1)
5.9.4 Membranes	129	(1)
References	130	(3)
Chapter 6 Gas Dehydration	133	(32)
6.1 Introduction	133	(1)
6.2 Water Content of Hydrocarbons	134	(4)
6.3 Gas Dehydration Processes	138	(24)
6.3.1 Absorption Processes	139	(7)
6.3.2 Adsorption Processes	146	(14)
6.3.3 Desiccant Processes	160	(1)
6.3.4 Membrane Processes	160	(1)
6.3.5 Other Processes	161	(1)
6.3.6 Comparison of Dehydration Processes	161	(1)
6.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations	162	(1)
References	162	(3)
Chapter 7 Hydrocarbon Recovery	165	(34)
7.1 Introduction	165	(2)
7.1.1 Retrograde Condensation	166	(1)
7.2 Process Components	167	(16)
7.2.1 External Refrigeration	168	(6)
7.2.2 Turboexpansion	174	(5)
7.2.3 Heat Exchange	179	(2)
7.2.4 Fractionation	181	(2)
7.3 Recovery Processes	183	(13)
7.3.1 Dew Point Control and Fuel Conditioning	184	(4)
7.3.2 Lower Ethane Recovery	188	(5)
7.3.3 High Ethane Recovery	193	(3)
7.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations	196	(1)
References	197	(2)
Chapter 8 Nitrogen Rejection	199	(10)
8.1 Introduction	199	(1)
8.2 Nitrogen Rejection for Gas Upgrading	200	(4)
8.2.1 Cryogenic Distillation	201	(1)
8.2.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption	202	(2)
8.2.3 Membranes	204	(1)
8.3 Nitrogen Rejection for Enhanced Oil Recovery	204	(2)
8.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations	206	(1)
References	206	(3)
Chapter 9 Trace-Component Recovery or Removal	209	(14)
9.1 Introduction	209	(2)
9.1.1 Hydrogen	210	(1)
9.1.2 Oxygen	210	(1)
9.1.3 Radon (NORM)	211	(1)
9.1.4 Arsenic	211	(1)
9.2 Helium	211	(4)
9.2.1 Introduction	211	(1)
9.2.2 Recovery Methods	212	(3)
9.3 Mercury	215	(3)
9.3.1 Environmental Considerations	216	(1)
9.3.2 Amalgam Formation	217	(1)
9.3.3 Removal Processes	217	(1)
9.4 (BTEX) Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylene	218	(2)
References	220	(3)
Chapter 10 Liquids Processing	223	(14)
10.1 Introduction	223	(1)
10.2 Condensate Processing	224	(1)
10.2.1 Sweetening	225	(1)
10.2.2 Dehydration	225	(1)
10.3 NGL Processing	225	(9)
10.3.1 Sweetening	226	(4)
10.3.2 Dehydration	230	(3)
10.3.3 Fractionation	233	(1)
10.4 Safety and Environmental Considerations	234	(1)
References	235	(2)
Chapter 11 Sulfur Recovery	237	(14)
11.1 Introduction	237	(1)
11.2 Properties of Sulfur	238	(1)
11.3 Sulfur Recovery Processes	239	(7)
11.3.1 Claus Process	239	(3)
11.3.2 Claus Tail Gas Cleanup	242	(4)
11.4 Sulfur Storage	246	(1)
11.5 Safety and Environmental Considerations	246	(2)
References	248	(3)
Chapter 12 Transportation and Storage	251	(14)
12.1 Introduction	251	(1)
12.2 Gas	252	(7)
12.2.1 Transportation	252	(2)
12.2.2 Market Centers	254	(1)
12.2.3 Storage	254	(5)
12.3 Liquids	259	(4)
12.3.1 Transportation	259	(3)
12.3.2 Storage	262	(1)
References	263	(2)
Chapter 13 Liquefied Natural Gas	265	(50)
13.1 Introduction	265	(5)
13.1.1 Peak Shaving Plants and Satellite Facilities	266	(1)
13.1.2 Baseload Plants and Stranded Reserves	267	(3)
13.2 Gas Treating before Liquefaction	270	(2)
13.3 Liquefaction Cycles	272	(20)
13.3.1 Joule-Thomson Cycles	272	(8)
13.3.2 Expander Cycles	280	(5)
13.3.3 Cascade Cycles	285	(7)
13.4 Storage of LNG	292	(8)
13.4.1 Cryogenic Aboveground Storage	293	(3)
13.4.2 Cryogenic In Ground Storage	296	(2)
13.4.3 Rollover	298	(2)
13.5 Transportation	300	(5)
13.5.1 Truck Transport	301	(1)
13.5.2 Pipelines	301	(1)
13.5.3 Marine Transport	301	(4)
13.6 Regasification and Cold Utilization of LNG	305	(1)
13.6.1 Regasification	305	(1)
13.6.2 Cold Utilization	305	(1)
13.7 Economics	306	(2)
13.7.1 Liquefaction Costs	306	(1)
13.7.2 Shipping Costs	307	(1)
13.7.3 Regasification Terminal Costs	308	(1)
13.8 Plant Efficiency	308	(1)
13.9 Safety and Environmental Considerations	309	(1)
References	310	(5)
Chapter 14 Capital Costs of Gas Processing Facilities	315	(10)
14.1 Introduction	315	(1)
14.2 Basic Premises for Cost Data	315	(1)
14.3 Amine Treating	315	(2)
14.4 Glycol Dehydration	317	(1)
14.5 NGL Recovery with Straight Refrigeration (Low Ethane Recovery)	317	(1)
14.6 NGL Recovery with Cryogenic Processing (High Ethane Recovery)	318	(1)
14.7 Sulfur Recovery and Tail Gas Cleanup	318	(3)
14.7.1 High Sulfur Recovery Rates	318	(1)
14.7.2 Low Sulfur Recovery Rates	319	(2)
14.8 NGL Extraction Plant Costs for Larger Facilities	321	(2)
14.9 Corrections to Cost Data	323	(1)
References	323	(2)
Chapter 15 Natural Gas Processing Plants	325	(10)
15.1 Introduction	325	(1)
15.2 Plant with Sweet Gas Feed and 98% Ethane Recovery	325	(4)
15.2.1 Overview of Plant Feed and Product Slate	325	(1)
15.2.2 Compression	326	(1)
15.2.3 Heat Exchange	326	(1)
15.2.4 Dehydration	326	(1)
15.2.5 Propane Refrigeration	327	(1)
14.2.6 Hydrocarbon Recovery	328	(1)
15.2.7 Amine Treating	328	(1)
15.2.8 Deethanizer	328	(1)
15.2.9 Residue Compression	328	(1)
15.3 Plant with Sour Gas Feed, NGL, and Sulfur Recovery	329	(3)
15.3.1 Overview of Plant Feed and Product Slate	329	(1)
15.3.2 Inlet Receiving	329	(1)
15.3.3 Inlet Compression	330	(1)
15.3.4 Gas Treating	330	(1)
15.3.5 Sulfur Recovery	330	(1)
15.3.6 Dehydration	331	(1)
15.3.7 Hydrocarbon Recovery	331	(1)
15.3.8 Liquids Processing	331	(1)
15.4 Plant with Sour Gas Feed, NGL Recovery, and Nitrogen Rejection	332	(2)
15.4.1 Overview of Plant Feed and Product Slate	332	(1)
15.4.2 Inlet Receiving	332	(1)
15.2.3 Gas Treating	333	(1)
15.2.4 Sulfur Recovery	333	(1)
15.2.5 Dehydration	333	(1)
15.2.6 NRU and Cold Box	334	(1)
15.2.7 Liquids Processing	334	(1)
References	334	(1)
Chapter 16 Notation	335	(80)
Appendix A Glossary of Gas Process Terminology	339	(12)
Appendix B Physical Constants and Physical Properties	351	(67)
B.1 Unit Conversion Factors	354	(1)
B.2 Gas Constants and Standard Gas Conditions	355	(1)
B.3 Thermodynamic and Physical Property Data	355	(61)
B.4 Hydrocarbon Compressibility Factors	416	(2)
References	418
Index	415