Handbook of Green Analytical Chemistry

by De La Guardia, Miguel; Garrigues, Salvador

• ISBN13: 9780470972014
• ISBN10: 0470972017
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2012-04-23
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

The emerging field of green analytical chemistry is concerned with the development of analytical procedures that minimize consumption of hazardous reagents and solvents, and maximize safety for operators and the environment. In recent years there have been significant developments in methodological and technological tools to prevent and reduce the deleterious effects of analytical activities; key strategies include recycling, replacement, reduction and detoxification of reagents and solvents. The Handbook of Green Analytical Chemistry provides a comprehensive overview of the present state and recent developments in green chemical analysis. A series of detailed chapters, written by international specialists in the field, discuss the fundamental principles of green analytical chemistry and present a catalogue of tools for developing environmentally friendly analytical techniques.

Author Biography

Miguel de la Guardia, Professor of Analytical Chemistry, Valencia University, Spain
Professor de la Guardia's research is focused on the automation of analytical methods through multicommutation, sample preparation procedures, chemometrics, development of green analytical methods and development of portable spectrometers. He is a member of the editorial board of Spectroscopy Letters, Ciencia and J. Braz. Chem. Soc., and he was a member of the advisory board of Analytica Chimica Acta from 1995 to 2000. In addition, he is a government consultant for Portugal, Italy, Argentina and China for the evaluation of research proposals and grants. Professor de la Guardia prepared a special issue on Green Spectroscopy in Spectroscopy Letters in 2009, and he is in the process of preparing a special issue on Green Analytical Chemistry for of TrAC which is due to publish in March 2010.

Salvador Garrigues, Professor of Analytical Chemistry, Valencia University, Spain
Salvador Garrigues works in the research team with Prof. Miguel de la Guardia and has collaborated in more than 150 publications.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors	p. xv
Preface	p. xix
Concepts	p. 1
The Concept of Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 3
Green Analytical Chemistry in the frame of Green Chemistry	p. 3
Green Analytical Chemistry versus Analytical Chemistry	p. 7
The ethical compromise of sustainability	p. 9
The business opportunities of clean methods	p. 11
The attitudes of the scientific community	p. 12
References	p. 14
Education in Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 17
The structure of the Analytical Chemistry paradigm	p. 17
The social perception of Analytical Chemistry	p. 20
Teaching Analytical Chemistry	p. 21
Teaching Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 25
From the bench to the real world	p. 26
Making sustainable professionals for the future	p. 28
References	p. 29
Green Analytical Laboratory Experiments	p. 31
Greening the university laboratories	p. 31
Green laboratory experiments	p. 33
Green methods for sample pretreatment	p. 33
Green separation using liquid-liquid, solid-phase and solventless extractions	p. 37
Green alternatives for chemical reactions	p. 42
Green spectroscopy	p. 45
The place of Green Analytical Chemistry in the future of our laboratories	p. 52
References	p. 52
Publishing in Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 55
A bibliometric study of the literature in Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 56
Milestones of the literature on Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 57
The need for powerful keywords	p. 61
A new attitude of authors faced with green parameters	p. 62
A proposal for editors and reviewers	p. 64
The future starts now	p. 65
References	p. 66
The Analytical Process	p. 67
Greening Sampling Techniques	p. 69
Greening analytical chemistry solutions for sampling	p. 70
New green approaches to reduce problems related to sample losses, sample contamination, transport and storage	p. 70
Methods based on flow-through solid phase spectroscopy	p. 70
Methods based on hollow-fiber GC/HPLC/CE	p. 71
Methods based on the use of nanoparticles	p. 75
Greening analytical in-line systems	p. 76
In-field sampling	p. 77
Environmentally friendly sample stabilization	p. 79
Sampling for automatization	p. 79
Future possibilities in green sampling	p. 80
References	p. 80
Direct Analysis of Samples	p. 85
Remote environmental sensing	p. 85
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images (satellite sensors)	p. 86
Open-path spectroscopy	p. 86
Field-portable analyzers	p. 90
Process monitoring: in-line, on-line and at-line measurements	p. 91
NIR spectroscopy	p. 92
Raman spectroscopy	p. 92
MIR spectroscopy	p. 93
Imaging technology and image analysis	p. 93
At-line non-destructive or quasi non-destructive measurements	p. 94
Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (PAS)	p. 94
Ambient Mass Spectrometry (MS)	p. 95
Solid sampling plasma sources	p. 95
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)	p. 96
X-ray spectroscopy	p. 96
Other surface analysis techniques	p. 97
New challenges in direct analysis	p. 97
References	p. 98
Green Analytical Chemistry Approaches in Sample Preparation	p. 103
About sample preparation	p. 103
Miniaturized extraction techniques	p. 104
Solid-phase extraction (SPE)	p. 104
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME)	p. 105
Stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE)	p. 106
Liquid-liquid microextraction	p. 106
Membrane extraction	p. 108
Gas extraction	p. 109
Alternative solvents	p. 113
Analytical applications of ionic liquids	p. 113
Supercritical fluid extraction	p. 114
Subcritical water extraction	p. 115
Fluorous phases	p. 116
Assisted extractions	p. 117
Microwave-assisted extraction	p. 117
Ultrasound-assisted extraction	p. 117
Pressurized liquid extraction	p. 118
Final remarks	p. 119
References	p. 119
Green Sample Preparation with Non-Chromatographic Separation Techniques5	p. 12
Sample preparation in the frame of the analytical process	p. 125
Separation techniques involving a gasâÇôliquid interface	p. 127
Gas diffusion	p. 127
Pervaporation	p. 127
Membrane extraction with a sorbent interface	p. 130
Distillation and microdistillation	p. 131
Head-space separation	p. 131
Hydride generation and cold-mercury vapour formation	p. 133
Techniques involving a liquidâÇôliquid interface	p. 133
Dialysis and microdialysis	p. 133
LiquidâÇôliquid extraction	p. 134
Single-drop microextraction	p. 137
Techniques involving a liquidâÇôsolid interface	p. 139
Solid-phase extraction	p. 139
Solid-phase microextraction	p. 141
Stir-bar sorptive extraction	p. 142
Continuous filtration	p. 143
A Green future for sample preparation	p. 145
References	p. 145
Capillary Electrophoresis	p. 153
The capillary electrophoresis separation techniques	p. 153
Capillary electrophoresis among other liquid phase separation methods	p. 155
Basic instrumentation for liquid phase separations	p. 155
CE versus HPLC from the point of view of Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 156
CE as a method of choice for portable instruments	p. 159
World-to-chip interfacing and the quest for a âÇ killerâÇÖ application for LOC devices	p. 163
Gradient elution moving boundary electrophoresis and electrophoretic exclusion	p. 165
Possible ways of surmounting the disadvantages of CE	p. 167
Sample preparation in CE	p. 168
Is capillary electrophoresis a green alternative?	p. 169
References	p. 170
Green Chromatography	p. 175
Greening liquid chromatography	p. 175
Green solvents	p. 176
Hydrophilic solvents	p. 176
Ionic liquids	p. 177
Supercritical Fluid Chromatography (SFC)	p. 177
Green instruments	p. 178
Microbore Liquid Chromatography (microbore LC)	p. 179
Capillary Liquid Chromatography (capillary LC)	p. 180
Nano Liquid Chromatography (nano LC)	p. 181
How to transfer the LC condition from traditional LC to microbore LC, capillary LC or nano LC	p. 182
Homemade micro-scale analytical system	p. 183
Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC)	p. 184
References	p. 185
Green Analytical Atomic Spectrometry	p. 199
Atomic spectrometry in the context of Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 199
Improvements in sample pretreatment strategies	p. 202
Specific improvements	p. 202
Slurry methods	p. 204
Direct solid sampling techniques	p. 205
Basic operating principles of the techniques discussed	p. 205
Sample requirements and pretreatment strategies	p. 207
Analyte monitoring: The arrival of high-resolution continuum source atomic absorption spectrometry	p. 208
Calibration	p. 210
Selected applications	p. 210
Future for green analytical atomic spectrometry	p. 213
References	p. 215
Solid Phase Molecular Spectroscopy	p. 221
Solid phase molecular spectroscopy: an approach to Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 221
Fundamentals of solid phase molecular spectroscopy	p. 222
Solid phase absorption (spectrophotometric) procedures	p. 222
Solid phase emission (fluorescence) procedures	p. 225
Batch mode procedures	p. 225
Flow mode procedures	p. 226
Monitoring an intrinsic property	p. 227
Monitoring derivative species	p. 231
Recent flow-SPMS based approaches	p. 232
Selected examples of application of solid phase molecular spectroscopy	p. 233
The potential of flow solid phase envisaged from the point of view of Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 235
References	p. 240
Derivative Techniques in Molecular Absorption, Fluorimetry and Liquid Chromatography as Tools for Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 245
The derivative technique as a tool for Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 245
Theoretical aspects	p. 246
Derivative absorption spectrometry in the UV-visible region	p. 247
Strategies to greener derivative spectrophotometry	p. 248
Derivative fluorescence spectrometry	p. 250
Derivative synchronous fluorescence spectrometry	p. 251
Use of derivative signal techniques in liquid chromatography	p. 254
References	p. 255
Greening Electroanalytical Methods	p. 261
Towards a more environmentally friendly electroanalysis	p. 261
Electrode materials	p. 262
Alternatives to mercury electrodes	p. 262
Nanomaterial-based electrodes	p. 268
Solvents	p. 270
Ionic liquids	p. 271
Supercritical fluids	p. 273
Electrochemical detection in flowing solutions	p. 274
Injection techniques	p. 274
Miniaturized systems	p. 276
Biosensors	p. 278
Greening biosurface preparation	p. 278
Direct electrochemical transfer of proteins	p. 281
Future trends in green electroanalysis	p. 282
References	p. 282
Strategies	p. 289
Energy Savings in Analytical Chemistry	p. 291
Energy consumption in analytical methods	p. 291
Economy and saving energy in laboratory practice	p. 294
Good housekeeping, control and maintenance	p. 295
Alternative sources of energy for processes	p. 296
Using microwaves in place of thermal heating	p. 297
Using ultrasound in sample treatment	p. 299
Light as a source of energy	p. 301
Using alternative solvents for energy savings	p. 302
Advantages of ionic liquids	p. 303
Using subcritical and supercritical fluids	p. 303
Efficient laboratory equipment	p. 305
Trends in sample treatment	p. 306
Effects of automation and micronization on energy consumption	p. 307
Miniaturization in sample treatment	p. 308
Using sensors	p. 310
Assessment of energy efficiency	p. 312
References	p. 316
Green Analytical Chemistry and Flow Injection Methodologies	p. 321
Progress of automated techniques for Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 321
Flow injection analysis	p. 322
Sequential injection analysis	p. 325
Lab-on-valve	p. 327
Multicommutation	p. 328
Conclusions and remarks	p. 334
References	p. 334
Miniaturization	p. 339
Current needs and pitfalls in sample preparation	p. 340
Non-integrated approaches for miniaturized sample preparation	p. 341
Gaseous and liquid samples	p. 341
Solid samples	p. 350
Integrated approaches for sample preparation on microfluidic platforms	p. 353
Microfluidic platforms in sample preparation process	p. 353
The isolation of analyte from the sample matrix: filtering approaches	p. 356
The isolation of analytes from the sample matrix: extraction approaches	p. 360
Preconcentration approaches using electrokinetics	p. 365
Derivatization schemes on microfluidic platforms	p. 372
Sample preparation in cell analysis	p. 373
Final remarks	p. 378
References	p. 379
Micro- and Nanomaterials Based Detection Systems Applied in Lab-on-a-Chip Technology	p. 389
Micro- and nanotechnology in Green Analytical Chemistry	p. 389
Nanomaterials-based (bio)sensors	p. 390
Optical nano(bio)sensors	p. 391
Electrochemical nano(bio)sensors	p. 393
Other detection principles	p. 395
Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) technology	p. 396
Miniaturization and nano-/microfluidics	p. 396
Micro- and nanofabrication techniques	p. 397
LOC applications	p. 398
LOCs with optical detections	p. 398
LOCs with electrochemical detectors	p. 398
LOCs with other detections	p. 399
Conclusions and future perspectives	p. 400
References	p. 401
Photocatalytic Treatment of Laboratory Wastes Containing Hazardous Organic Compounds	p. 407
Photocatalysis	p. 407
Fundamentals of the photocatalytic process	p. 408
Limits of the photocatalytic treatment	p. 408
Usual photocatalytic procedure in laboratory practice	p. 408
Solar detoxification of laboratory waste	p. 409
Influence of experimental parameters	p. 411
Dissolved oxygen	p. 411
pH	p. 411
Catalyst concentration	p. 412
Degradation kinetics	p. 412
Additives reducing the eâêÆ/h+ recombination	p. 412
Analytical control of the photocatalytic treatment	p. 413
Examples of possible applications of photocatalysis to the treatment of laboratory wastes	p. 413
Percolates containing soluble aromatic contaminants	p. 414
Photocatalytic destruction of aromatic amine residues in aqueous wastes	p. 414
Degradation of aqueous wastes containing pesticides residue	p. 415
The peculiar behaviour of triazine herbicides	p. 416
Treatment of aqueous wastes containing organic solvent residues	p. 416
Treatment of surfactant-containing aqueous wastes	p. 416
Degradation of aqueous solutions of azo-dyes	p. 419
Treatment of laboratory waste containing pharmaceuticals	p. 419
Continuous monitoring of photocatalytic treatment	p. 420
References	p. 420
Fields of Application	p. 425
Green Bioanalytical Chemistry	p. 427
The analytical techniques in bioanalysis	p. 427
Environmental-responsive polymers	p. 428
Preparation of a polymer-modified surface for the stationary phase of environmental-responsive chromatography	p. 430
Temperature-responsive chromatography for green analytical methods	p. 432
Biological analysis by temperature-responsive chromatography	p. 432
Analysis of propofol in plasma using water as a mobile phase	p. 434
Contraceptive drugs analysis using temperature gradient chromatography	p. 435
Affinity chromatography for green bioseparation	p. 436
Separation of biologically active molecules by the green chromatographic method	p. 438
Protein separation by an aqueous chromatographic system	p. 441
Ice chromatography	p. 442
High-temperature liquid chromatography	p. 443
Ionic liquids	p. 443
The future in green bioanalysis	p. 444
References	p. 444
Infrared Spectroscopy in Biodiagnostics: A Green Analytical Approach	p. 449
Infrared spectroscopy capabilities	p. 449
Infrared spectroscopy of bio-active chemicals in a bio-system	p. 451
Medical analysis of body fluids by infrared spectroscopy	p. 453
Blood and its extracts	p. 455
Urine	p. 457
Other body fluids	p. 457
Diagnosis in tissue samples via IR spectroscopic analysis	p. 457
Main spectral characteristics	p. 459
The role of data processing	p. 460
Cancer diagnosis by FTIR spectrometry	p. 465
New trends in infrared spectroscopy assisted biodiagnostics	p. 468
References	p. 470
Environmental Analysis	p. 475
Pollution and its control	p. 475
Steps of an environmental analysis	p. 476
Sample collection	p. 476
Sample preparation	p. 476
Analysis	p. 479
Green environmental analysis for water, wastewater and effluent	p. 480
Major mineral constituents	p. 480
Trace metal ions	p. 481
Organic pollutants	p. 483
Green environmental analysis applied for solid samples	p. 485
Soil	p. 485
Sediments	p. 488
Wastes	p. 492
Green environmental analysis applied for atmospheric samples	p. 496
Gases	p. 496
Particulates	p. 497
References	p. 497
Green Industrial Analysis	p. 505
Greening industrial practices for safety and cost reasons	p. 505
The quality control of raw materials and end products	p. 506
Process control	p. 510
Effluent control	p. 511
Working atmosphere control	p. 514
The future starts now	p. 515
References	p. 515
Index	p. 519
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