Handbook of Human Symbolic Evolution

by Lock, Andrew; Peters, Charles R.

• ISBN13: 9780198521532
• ISBN10: 0198521537
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1997-06-26
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

This reference work should be the first resource for anyone interested in the origins and nature of human symbolic abilities. The book is about the evolution of humanity: our language, art, tools, and communication. As such it covers a wide range of disciplines: anthropology, psychology, primatology, paleontology, and archaeology. The various topics are dealt with by experts from each field, in authoritative articles that are both scholarly and readable for a wide audience. The book is profusely illustrated, with many striking examples of prehistoric art.

Table of Contents

List of contributors	xxviii
Part I: Palaeoanthropology	3	(154)
1. Photogallery of fossil skulls	3	(28)
2. An outline of human phylogeny	31	(22)
Bernard G. Campbell
2.1 The nature of the evidence	31	(1)
2.2 The earliest apes	32	(4)
2.3 The earliest Hominidae: Australopithecus	36	(5)
2.4 The earliest humans: Homo habilis	41	(2)
2.5 Homo erectus	43	(3)
2.6 Modern humans: Homo sapiens	46	(3)
2.7 Discussion	49	(1)
Editorial notes	50	(1)
References	51	(2)
3. Evolutionary trees of apes and humans from DNA sequences	53	(21)
Peter J. Waddell
David Penny
3.1 Introduction	54	(1)
3.2 Reconstructing relationships: from DNA sequences to evolutionary history	54	(6)
3.2.1 Basic steps in obtaining a tree for a selected stretch of DNA	54	(2)
3.2.2 Putting dates on a tree	56	(2)
3.2.3 Results from other molecular data	58	(1)
3.2.4 Polymorphisms and population variability	59	(1)
3.2.5 Total error on estimated divergence times	59	(1)
3.3 Human genetic data: mtDNA sequences	60	(6)
3.3.1 Out-of-Africa, or mitochondrial Eve	60	(2)
3.3.2 Problems with trees from large numbers of sequences	62	(1)
3.3.3 Results from re-analysing the data	62	(2)
3.3.4 When, where, who, and how	64	(1)
3.3.4.1 When and where	64	(1)
3.3.4.2 Dating trees with archaeological evidence	65	(1)
3.3.4.3 Who and how	66	(1)
3.4 Trees of human relationships from nuclear genetic data	66	(3)
3.4.1 Alleles and polymorphisms	66	(1)
3.4.2 Ingroup dating of the tree	67	(2)
3.5 Conclusions and prospects	69	(1)
Epilogue	70	(1)
Notes	71	(1)
References	72	(2)
4. Evolution of the human brain	74	(52)
Ralph Holloway
4.1 Introduction	74	(2)
4.2 The human brain	76	(9)
4.3 Lines of evidence regarding human brain evolution	85	(2)
4.4 Palaeoneurological evidence	87	(10)
4.4.1 Brain size	87	(1)
4.4.1.1 Absolute brain size	87	(2)
4.4.1.2 Encephalization quotients	89	(1)
4.4.2 Organization of the brain	90	(1)
4.4.2.1 Relative increase in parietal lobe association cortex	90	(1)
4.4.2.2 A more human-like third inferior frontal convolution	91	(2)
4.4.2.3 Asymmetries of the brain and laterality	93	(2)
4.4.2.4 Towards a synthesis	95	(2)
4.5 Conclusion	97	(1)
Appendix: Sexual dimorphism and the brain	98	(2)
Notes	100	(2)
References	102	(6)
Editorial appendix I: Endocranial volumes	108	(8)
Editorial appendix II: Evolution of the human vocal apparatus	116	(10)
5. Evolution of the hand and bipedality	126	(31)
Mary W. Marzke
5.1 Introduction	126	(1)
5.2 Non-human primate hands	127	(3)
5.2.1 Hand morphology shared by primates	127	(1)
5.2.2 The hand of the Great Apes	128	(2)
5.3 Human hands	130	(5)
5.3.1 The morphological basis of tool-use in humans	131	(3)
5.3.2 Contribution of bipedality to tool-use	134	(1)
5.3.3 The brain, the hand, and tool-use	135	(1)
5.4 Fossil hominoid hands and locomotor apparatus	135	(7)
5.4.1 Miocene fossil Hominoidea	135	(2)
5.4.2 Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Hominidae	137	(4)
5.4.3 Middle Pleistocene	141	(1)
5.4.4 Late Pleistocene	141	(1)
5.5 Origin and evolution of the hominid hand and bipedality	142	(3)
5.5.1 The evidence from the comparative morphology of extant primates	142	(1)
5.5.2 The fossil evidence	143	(1)
5.5.3 The hand and the origin of bipedality	144	(1)
5.5.4 New perspectives on the role of tool-use and tool-making in the evolution of the hominid hand and bipedality	144	(1)
5.5.5 The hand in symbolic behaviour	145	(1)
5.6 Conclusions	145	(1)
Notes	146	(1)
References	147	(10)
Part II: Social and socio-cultural systems	157	(214)
Editorial introduction to Part II: Social and socio-cultural systems	157	(10)
References	163	(4)
Part II (a): Comparative perspectives	167	(72)
6. Primate communication, lies, and ideas	167	(11)
Alison Jolly
6.1 Introduction	167	(1)
6.2 Overview of the primates: taxonomy, social structure, intelligence	168	(2)
6.3 Communication and privacy	170	(2)
6.4 Deception	172	(2)
6.5 Symbolic behaviour in apes	174	(2)
References	176	(2)
7. Social relations, human ecology, and the evolution of culture: an exploration of concepts and definitions	178	(26)
Tim Ingold
7.1 Introduction	178	(1)
7.2 Animal society and human society	179	(6)
7.2.1 The superorganic	180	(1)
7.2.2 Society versus culture	181	(1)
7.2.3 Interactions and relationships	182	(1)
7.2.4 The constitution of persons	183	(1)
7.2.5 Sociality and consciousness	184	(1)
7.3 Social and ecological relations	185	(6)
7.3.1 The environment of an organism	186	(1)
7.3.2 Making an artificial environment	187	(1)
7.3.3 The ecological approach to sociality	188	(1)
7.3.4 The separation of social and ecological domains	189	(1)
7.3.5 The essence of production	190	(1)
7.4 Culture: its transmission and evolution	191	(8)
7.4.1 Reason and tradition	191	(2)
7.4.2 Individual and social learning	193	(2)
7.4.3 Learning and teaching	195	(1)
7.4.4 The analogy between organic and cultural evolution	196	(1)
7.4.5 Variation and invention	197	(1)
7.4.6 Natural and artificial selection	197	(2)
7.5 Conclusion	199	(1)
Notes	200	(1)
References	200	(4)
8. Social relations, communication, and cognition	204	(35)
Andrew Lock
Kim Symes
8.1 Introduction	205	(1)
8.2 Non-verbal communication in relation to cultural complexity	205	(3)
8.2.1 The unadorned body	205	(1)
8.2.1.1 Innate versus learned repertoires	205	(1)
8.2.1.2 Innate versus learned emotions	206	(1)
8.2.1.3 Empirical research	206	(1)
8.2.2 The adorned body	206	(2)
8.2.2.1 Body adornment in simple societies	206	(1)
8.2.2.2 Body adornment in complex societies	207	(1)
8.2.3 Summary	208	(1)
8.3 Linguistic communication	208	(5)
8.3.1 Sociolinguistics: origins and perspectives	208	(1)
8.3.2 Sex differences in speech	209	(1)
8.3.3 Sex differences, conservatism, and prestige	210	(1)
8.3.4 Language styles in socially-stratified language communities	211	(2)
8.3.4.1 Rules of address	211	(1)
8.3.4.2 Differences between speakers from different social groups	211	(1)
8.3.4.3 Differences between speakers of different ages	212	(1)
8.3.4.4 Differences within an individual's speech depending on social context	212	(1)
8.3.4.5 Institutionalized language contexts	213	(1)
8.3.5 Summary	213	(1)
8.4 The significance of linguistic and non-verbal variation	213	(1)
8.5 Ecological determinants of cultural patterns	214	(3)
8.5.1 Social differentiation and its measurement	214	(1)
8.5.2 Social organization and 'ecological factors'	215	(1)
8.5.3 Socialization practices and exploitive patterns	216	(1)
8.5.4 Summary	217	(1)
8.6 Language, thought, and social structure in a cross-cultural perspective	217	(5)
8.6.1 Fischer's work on Trunk and Ponape language and social structure	217	(2)
8.6.1.1 Fischer's theoretical perspective	217	(1)
8.6.1.2 Fischer's data	218	(1)
8.6.2 Greenberg's analytic-synthetic ordination	219	(1)
8.6.3 Colour-term differentiation and social structure	219	(1)
8.6.4 Chinese and English grammatical structures and problem-solving	220	(2)
8.6.4.1 Counter-factuality	221	(1)
8.6.4.2 Generics	221	(1)
8.6.4.3 Entification	221	(1)
8.6.4.4 Experimental work	221	(1)
8.7 Self, culture, and communication	222	(1)
8.8 Bernstein's theorizing	223	(2)
8.9 The reproduction of culture	225	(4)
8.9.1 Parent-child interaction and the transmission of cognitive skills	225	(2)
8.9.2 Cognitive style and social practices across cultures	227	(1)
8.9.2.1 Socialization practices	228	(1)
8.9.2.2 Social tightness (social conformity)	228	(1)
8.9.2.3 Ecological adaptation	228	(1)
8.9.3 Are Bernstein's and Witkin's approaches comparable?	228	(1)
8.9.4 Cognitive style and brain function	229	(1)
8.10 Overview	229	(2)
Notes	231	(1)
References	232	(7)
Part II (b): Palaeoanthropological perspectives	239	(132)
9. On the evolution of human socio-cultural systems	239	(24)
Randall K. White
9.1 Introduction	239	(1)
9.2 Archaeological methods of social analysis	240	(1)
9.2.1 Social demography	240	(1)
9.2.2 Degree and nature of material exchange	240	(1)
9.2.3 Degree of internal differentiation	240	(1)
9.2.4 Degree of formal boundaries	240	(1)
9.2.5 Degree of local integration	241	(1)
9.3 Archaeology's refinement of the social evolutionary framework	241	(1)
9.4 The evolution of human social patterns	241	(5)
9.4.1 Social life in the Lower Palaeolithic (2 m.y.a. to 125000 years ago)	241	(1)
9.4.2 Social life and interassemblage variation in the Middle Palaeolithic (125000-35000 years ago)	242	(1)
9.4.3 Social life and culture-as-we-know-it: the Upper Palaeolithic/Late Stone Age (35000-12000 years ago)	243	(1)
9.4.4 Social life at the end of the Pleistocene (12000 to c.8000 years ago)	244	(2)
9.4.5 Stratification and the State (c.5000-c.3000 years ago)	246	(1)
9.5 Some general observations	246	(1)
Editorial appendix: The development of complex societies	247	(4)
Notes	251	(4)
References	255	(8)
10. The evolution of tools and symbolic behaviour	263	(25)
Thomas G. Wynn
10.1 Introduction	263	(1)
10.2 Non-human tools	264	(1)
10.3 Hominid tools at 1.8 million years ago	264	(4)
10.4 Hominid tools at 1 million years ago	268	(3)
10.5 Tools at 300 000 years ago	271	(4)
10.6 Tools at 85 000 years ago	275	(3)
10.7 Tools at 15 000 years ago	278	(4)
10.8 Recent developments	282	(2)
10.9 Summary and conclusions	284	(1)
Notes	285	(1)
References	285	(3)
11. A history of the interpretation of European `palaeolithic art': magic, mythogram, and metaphors for modernity	288	(62)
Margaret W. Conkey
11.1 Introduction	289	(1)
11.2 Some intellectual context	289	(3)
11.3 The materials that we call `Palaeolithic art'	292	(7)
11.3.1 Concerns about the evidence: diversity and preservation	292	(1)
11.3.2 Concerns about the evidence: chronology	293	(1)
11.3.3 Techniques, conventions, and media	294	(2)
11.3.4 The `subject-matter' of the imagery	296	(3)
11.4 The major interpretations	299	(3)
11.4.1 Art as hunting magic: the foundation interpretation	299	(1)
11.4.2 The structuralist `break-out'	300	(2)
11.5 Alternative interpretative perspectives	302	(5)
11.5.1 Art as adaptive: attempts at context and process	303	(3)
11.5.2 Alexander Marshack: from calendars to `post-structuralist'?	306	(1)
11.6 Assessing the interpretative terrain: into the 1990s	307	(2)
11.7 What becomes of the study of origins?	309	(2)
11.8 Some closing thoughts	311	(1)
Notes	311	(33)
References	344	(6)
12. Photogallery of contemporary hunter-gatherer rock art	350	(21)
12.1 Australian Aboriginal art: Andrew Lock and Margaret Nobbs	351	(9)
12.2 Southern African Bushmen rock art: J. David Lewis-Williams, Thomas Dowson, Andrew Lock, and Charles R. Peters	360	(3)
12.3 Editorial note on the significance of contemporary huntergatherer art for understanding the palaeolithic materials	363	(4)
Notes	367	(1)
References	367	(4)
Part III: Ontogeny and symbolism	371	(152)
Editorial introduction to Part III: Ontogeny: symbolic development and symbolic evolution	371	(29)
1 Ontogeny and phylogeny	371	(3)
1.1 Mosaic evolution	372	(1)
1.2 Embryological mosaics, or dissociations	372	(1)
1.3 Heterochrony and evolution	373	(1)
2 A role for heterochronic processes in human evolution	374	(3)
3 Relating human behavioural ontogeny and phylogeny: issues	377	(9)
3.1 Dissociable systems in cognition and language	377	(6)
3.1.1 Parallels between action and language: analogy or homology?	379	(3)
3.1.2 Dissociable developmental mechanisms in early language development	382	(1)
3.2 Implications of cognitive ontogeny for phylogeny	383	(3)
3.2.1 Specific ontogenetic adaptations	383	(1)
3.2.2 Maturational schedules	383	(1)
3.2.3 The existence of `end products' as ontogenetic substrates	384	(1)
3.2.4 The `unit' problem and the co-evolutionary system	385	(1)
3.2.5 The `attribution' problem and the socio-cultural system	385	(1)
4 Relating human behavioural ontogeny and phylogeny: strategies	386	(8)
4.1 The suite of separable capacities	387	(2)
4.1.1 Gestural, referential communication	387	(1)
4.1.2 Imitation	387	(1)
4.1.3 Means-end analysis	388	(1)
4.1.4 Comprehension	388	(1)
4.1.5 Additional pre-requisites	388	(1)
4.2 The provision of a scaffolding system	389	(5)
5 Concluding remarks	394	(1)
Notes	394	(1)
References	395	(5)
13. The role of ontogenesis in human evolution and development	400	(7)
Christopher G. Sinha
13.1 Adaptation and representation	400	(7)
Note	405	(1)
References	405	(2)
14. The ontogeny and evolution of the brain, cognition, and language	407	(25)
Kathleen Gibson
14.1 Neoteny and recapitulation	407	(2)
14.2 Quantity versus reorganization in the evolution of the brain	409	(1)
14.3 Comparative brain maturation patterns	410	(2)
14.4 Cognitive maturation and neocortical development	412	(6)
14.5 Can the neo-Piagetian ontogenetic framework be placed in an evolutionary perspective?	418	(3)
14.6 What can be `reconstructed' phylogenetically?	421	(4)
Notes	425	(1)
References	426	(6)
15. Early interaction and cognitive skills: implications for the acquisition of culture	432	(37)
David Messer
Glyn Collis
15.1 Introduction	433	(1)
15.2 Developmental theory and the origins of social behaviour	434	(5)
15.2.1 Trevarthen	434	(2)
15.2.2 Piagetian approaches	436	(1)
15.2.3 Vygotsky	437	(1)
15.2.4 Kaye	437	(1)
15.2.5 Summary	438	(1)
15.3 The beginnings of cultural understanding: infant capacities and social interaction	439	(3)
15.3.1 Social responsiveness and infant capacities	439	(1)
15.3.2 Social interaction and infant capacities	440	(2)
15.4 Social interaction and the development of relationships	442	(4)
15.4.1 Attachment	442	(4)
15.5 Relationships and social cognition in non-human primates	446	(1)
15.6 Social interaction and the development of cognitive skills	447	(8)
15.6.1 Imitation	447	(2)
15.6.2 The co-ordination of attention	449	(3)
15.6.3 Social interaction and the acquisition of language	452	(1)
15.6.3.1 Simplified speech to children	452	(1)
15.6.3.2 Speech and non-linguistic context	453	(1)
15.6.3.3 Pre-linguistic and linguistic communication	453	(1)
15.6.3.4 Social interaction and linguistic innovation	454	(1)
15.6.3.5 Summary	455	(1)
15.7 The influence of social processes	455	(2)
15.7.1 Cross-cultural comparisons of social interaction and language-acquisition	455	(1)
15.7.2 Social interaction and cognitive development	456	(1)
15.8 Communication with language and the extension of cognitive skills	457	(2)
15.9 Summary	459	(1)
References	460	(9)
16. The origins of language and thought in early childhood	469	(14)
George Butterworth
16.1 Introduction	470	(1)
16.2 Classical theories of the relation between language and thought in young children: Piaget and Vygotsky	470	(2)
16.2.1 Piaget's theory	470	(1)
16.2.2 Vygotsky's theory	471	(1)
16.3 Perceptual, intellectual, and social precursors of thought and language in young children	472	(4)
16.3.1 Intellectual development and the pre-requisites for linguistic communication	472	(3)
16.3.2 Linguistic aspects of thought in young children	475	(1)
16.3.2.1 Effects of language on categorization: the Whorfian hypothesis	475	(1)
16.3.2.2 The verbal regulation of behaviour	475	(1)
16.4 Ontogeny and phylogeny: stages of development and the recapitulation hypothesis	476	(3)
16.4.1 'Terminal addition'	477	(1)
16.4.2 Neoteny	477	(1)
16.4.3 Common constraint	478	(1)
16.5 Conclusion	479	(4)
Editorial appendix: Recent studies of the relation between cognition and language development	479	(1)
References	480	(3)
17. Theories of symbolization and development	483	(18)
Christopher G. Sinha
17.1 Sign and object	483	(6)
17.1.1 Signification, representation, and language	483	(1)
17.1.2 Theories of the sign: Peirce, Frege, Saussure	484	(3)
17.1.2.1 Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914)	484	(1)
17.1.2.2 Gottlob Frege (1848-1925)	485	(1)
17.1.2.3 Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)	486	(1)
17.1.3 Social life as semiosis: Mead, Bakhtin, Barthes	487	(2)
17.1.3.1 George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)	487	(1)
17.1.3.2 Mikhail Bakhtin (1895-1975)	488	(1)
17.1.3.3 Roland Barthes (1915-1980)	489	(1)
17.2 Language, thought, and symbol in human development: Freud, Piaget, Vygotsky	489	(8)
17.2.1 Darwin and the mind of the child	489	(1)
17.2.2 Freud: Ursprache and the Unconscious	490	(2)
17.2.2.1 Freud as evolutionist	490	(1)
17.2.2.2 Freud as semiotician	491	(1)
17.2.2.3 Freud as cognitive theorist	492	(1)
17.2.3 Piaget: from solipsism to structure	492	(3)
17.2.4 Vygotsky: language and the sociogenesis of reasoning	495	(2)
17.3 Conclusion	497	(1)
Notes	498	(1)
References	498	(3)
18. Children's drawings and the evolution of art	501	(22)
J. Gavin Bremner
18.1 Introduction	502	(1)
18.2 Children's spontaneous drawings	502	(3)
18.2.1 Eng (1931)	502	(1)
18.2.2 Luquet (1927)	503	(1)
18.2.3 Kellogg (1970)	503	(4)
18.3 The development of drawing within the Piagetian framework	505	(1)
18.4 Some recent experimental approaches to children's drawings	506	(6)
18.4.1 Drawing as problem-solving	506	(1)
18.4.2 Drawing as a spatial skill	507	(1)
18.4.3 Representation of the third dimension in drawings	508	(2)
18.4.4 Intellectual realism re-assessed	510	(2)
18.5 Summary	512	(1)
18.6 Two accounts of the evolution of art	512	(6)
18.6.1 Gablik (1976)	513	(1)
18.6.2 Gombrich (1960)	514	(2)
18.6.3 Pointers from developmental psychology	516	(2)
Note	518	(1)
References	518	(5)
Part IV: Language systems	523	(338)
Editorial introduction to Part IV: Language systems in an evolutionary perspective	523	(9)
1 Contruction vs. discontinuity: modularity and grammar again	523	(2)
2 Language reconstruction	525	(4)
Notes	529	(1)
References	530	(2)
19. Map gallery of the distribution and classification of extant human languages	532	(21)
20. Spoken language and sign language	553	(18)
Margaret Deuchar
20.1 Introduction	553	(1)
20.2 Spoken and signed languages	554	(1)
20.2.1 Spoken languages	554	(1)
20.2.2 Signed languages	554	(1)
20.3 Definition of language	554	(4)
20.3.1 Focus on structure	557	(1)
20.3.2 Focus on function	557	(1)
20.4 Arbitrariness	558	(4)
20.4.1 Iconicity versus arbitrariness	558	(1)
20.4.2 Iconicity in spoken language	558	(1)
20.4.3 Iconicity versus arbitrariness in sign languages	559	(3)
20.4.4 Arbitrariness and evolution	562	(1)
20.4.5 Summary	562	(1)
20.5 Structure in spoken and signed language	562	(3)
20.5.1 Structure below the word/sign level	562	(2)
20.5.2 Grammar	564	(1)
20.5.3 Summary	565	(1)
20.6 Language acquisition	565	(1)
20.6.1 Summary	566	(1)
20.7 Sign languages and creoles	566	(2)
20.8 Language use and language evolution	568	(1)
20.9 Spoken and signed languages: a summary	568	(1)
References	568	(3)
21. A history of the study of language origins and the gestural primacy hypothesis	571	(25)
Gordon W. Hewes
21.1 Introduction	571	(1)
21.2 A brief history of speculations about language origins	572	(10)
21.2.1 Classical and pre-Renaissance times	572	(1)
21.2.2 The seventeenth to mid-nineteenth centuries	572	(4)
21.2.3 The mid-nineteenth century and the Darwinian revolution	576	(1)
21.2.4 The early twentieth century	576	(1)
21.2.5 The 1920s to the 1950s	576	(6)
21.2.5.1 Primate field studies	579	(1)
21.2.5.2 The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics	579	(3)
21.2.6 Renewed interest in gestural languages	582	(1)
21.2.7 1970 to the present	582	(1)
21.3 Specific evidence for the gestural origin of language	582	(5)
21.3.1 The questionable suitability of sound as the original basis for language	583	(1)
21.3.2 Weakness of some alternative models for the emergence of language	583	(1)
21.3.3 Manual motor control and the cerebral lateralization of language	584	(1)
21.3.4 Some advantages of gestural communication	584	(1)
21.3.5 Distribution of gestural communication	585	(1)
21.3.6 Volar depigmentation as evidence for the primacy of gestural communication	586	(1)
21.3.7 Phonemes and language	586	(1)
21.3.8 Fetal eavesdropping	587	(1)
21.3.9 Possible cognitive and other advantages of speech	587	(1)
21.4 A gestural-origin model for language	587	(4)
21.4.1 Biological and cultural pressures for continuing language evolution	588	(1)
21.4.2 Cerebral lateralization	588	(1)
21.4.3 Deixis as a starting-point for the early hominids	588	(1)
21.4.4 Hypothetical onset of gestural communication	589	(1)
21.4.5 Beginnings of vocal language, hypothetically as an accompaniment of gestural communication	589	(1)
21.4.6 Attainment of habitual but still non-phonemic vocal language	590	(1)
21.4.7 World-wide phonemicization of speech	590	(1)
21.5 Conclusions	591	(1)
Notes	591	(1)
References	592	(4)
22. Cognitive abilities in a comparative perspective	596	(48)
Andrew Lock
Michael Colombo
22.1 Animal cognition	597	(1)
22.2 Memory	597	(2)
22.2.1 Spatial memory	597	(1)
22.2.2 Delayed matching to sample paradigm (DMTS)	598	(1)
22.2.3 Serial position and clustering effects in recall	598	(1)
22.3 Other cognitive systems	599	(1)
22.4 Some caveats	600	(1)
22.5 The uses of cognition: what can animals do or 'learn'?	601	(10)
22.5.1 Simple conditioning and discrimination learning	604	(1)
22.5.2 Complex discrimination learning	604	(3)
22.5.2.1 Discrimination learning set (DLS)	604	(2)
22.5.2.2 Reversal learning	606	(1)
22.5.3 Time-based, response-patterned, and match-to-sample learning	607	(2)
22.5.4 Probability learning	609	(1)
22.5.5 Cross-modal recognition and transfer of learning	610	(1)
22.5.6 Representation: categorization and concepts	610	(1)
22.6 Same/different judgements by animals	611	(4)
22.6.1 Non-primates	612	(1)
22.6.2 Monkeys	613	(1)
22.6.3 Apes	614	(1)
22.7 Symmetry and transitivity of conditional relations	615	(1)
22.7.1 Non-primates and monkeys	615	(1)
22.7.2 Apes	616	(1)
22.8 Representations of lists in pigeons and monkeys	616	(1)
22.8.1 Interim conclusion	617	(1)
22.9 Observational learning	617	(1)
22.10 Piagetian studies of animal cognition	617	(4)
22.10.1 Sensorimotor intelligence	619	(1)
22.10.2 Object permanence	619	(1)
22.10.3 Other sensorimotor acquisitions	620	(1)
22.10.4 Representational intelligence	620	(1)
22.11 Tool-use, insight, self-recognition, and mirror-use in primates	621	(9)
22.11.1 Tool-use and insight	621	(1)
22.11.2 Mirror-use and self-recognition	622	(2)
22.11.3 'Theory of mind': understanding others	624	(3)
22.11.3.1 Phylogenetic origins	627	(2)
22.11.3.2 Ontogenetic origins	629	(1)
22.12 Imitation, problem-solving, and cognition	630	(1)
22.13 Evolutionary implications of comparative studies of 'cognition'	631	(2)
22.13.1 The ecology of cognition	631	(1)
22.13.2 The testing of cognition	631	(1)
22.13.3 The attribution of cognition	632	(1)
22.13.4 Accounting for human cognition from a comparative perspective	632	(1)
Notes	633	(1)
References	634	(10)
23. Animal language and cognition projects	644	(42)
Carolyn A. Ristau
23.1 Introduction	645	(1)
23.2 A brief history of the ape-language projects	645	(1)
23.3 Provisos when interpreting the results of the ape-language and cognition studies	646	(1)
23.4 Theoretical issues	647	(3)
23.4.1 Definition of language: the meaning of the word and the utterance	647	(1)
23.4.2 Definitions of language and the nature of American Sign Language	648	(1)
23.4.3 Production versus comprehension	649	(1)
23.5 The findings with regard to symbolic abilities	650	(12)
23.5.1 Linguistic-like capacities	650	(1)
23.5.1.1 Grammar	650	(8)
23.5.1.2 Meaning	653	(1)
23.5.1.2.1 Procedures to establish reference	653	(2)
23.5.1.2.2 The nature of the internal representation	655	(2)
23.5.1.2.3 Displacement testing	657	(1)
23.5.1.3 Other instances of possible symbolism by human-reared apes, signing apes, and apes in the wild	658	(1)
23.5.2 Cognitive and symbolic capacities	658	(4)
23.5.2.1 Quantitative abilities	658	(3)
23.5.2.2 Reasoning	661	(1)
23.6 Methodological problems	662	(3)
23.6.1 The 'Clever Hans' phenomenon	662	(1)
23.6.2 Strict experimental control or casual interaction between ape and communicator--which is more appropriate?	663	(1)
23.6.3 The significance of the novel or few-time event	664	(1)
23.6.4 The importance of ethological indices of behaviour	664	(1)
23.7 The changing interpretations of linguistic development and of the ape language projects	665	(2)
23.8 Evolutionary significance	667	(1)
23.9 Conclusions	667	(1)
Note	668	(12)
References	680	(6)
24. Symbols and structures in language-acquisition	686	(61)
Carolyn Johnson
Henry Davis
Marlys Macken
24.1 Introduction	687	(1)
24.2 Language as a symbol system	687	(1)
24.3 Child-language study in a historical perspective	688	(1)
24.4 Theories of language-acquisition	689	(9)
24.4.1 The interactive approach	691	(5)
24.4.2 The cognitive approach	696	(1)
24.4.2.1 Correlations between linguistic and cognitive developments	696	(1)
24.4.2.2 General cognitive mechanisms	697	(1)
24.4.3 The autonomous approach	697	(1)
24.5 Acquisition of the phonological system	698	(7)
24.5.1 The learner's task	698	(1)
24.5.2 Three developmental issues	699	(1)
24.5.2.1 The initial state	699	(2)
24.5.2.2 The transition from babbling to language	701	(1)
24.5.2.3 Learning the phonological system	701	(1)
24.5.3 Theories of phonological acquisition	702	(3)
24.5.3.1 Jakobson's structuralist theory	703	(1)
24.5.3.2 Stampe's natural phonology	703	(1)
24.5.3.3 Generative phonology	703	(1)
24.5.3.4 Prosodic theory	703	(1)
24.5.3.5 Cognitive theory	703	(2)
24.6 Acquisition of the lexical semantic system	705	(11)
24.6.1 The learner's task	705	(1)
24.6.2 Early lexical development	705	(2)
24.6.2.1 Children's errors in word-use	706	(1)
24.6.3 Theories of the acquisition of word-meaning	707	(1)
24.6.3.1 The semantic feature hypothesis	707	(1)
24.6.3.2 The functional core hypothesis	708	(1)
24.6.3.3 The contrastive hypothesis	709	(1)
24.6.3.4 Prototype theories	709	(1)
24.6.3.5 The state of the art	710	(1)
24.6.4 The lexicon and human symbolic capacity: developmental questions	711	(1)
24.6.4.1 When is a word a symbol?	711	(1)
24.6.4.2 Is the developing lexical system part of a general symbolic capacity?	712	(4)
24.6.4.2.1 Gesture and words	712	(1)
24.6.4.2.2 Words and concepts	713	(3)
24.7 Acquisition of the syntactic system	716	(8)
24.7.1 The learner's task	716	(2)
24.7.2 Overview of syntactic acquisition	718	(6)
24.7.2.1 The presyntactic stage	718	(2)
24.7.2.2 The syntactic stage	720	(2)
24.7.2.3 The postsyntactic stage	722	(2)
24.8 Acquisition of speech acts	724	(3)
24.8.1 Primitive speech acts	724	(2)
24.8.2 Communicative functions in early childhood	726	(1)
24.8.3 The relation between communicative functions and linguistic forms in childhood	726	(1)
24.9 Language-acquisition and the evolution of language: some closing thoughts	727	(2)
24.9.1 Theories of language-acquisition and symbolic evolution	728	(1)
24.10 Conclusion	729	(1)
Editorial appendix: Gestures and words: the early stages of communicative development	729	(5)
Notes	734	(3)
References	737	(10)
25. The reconstruction of the evolution of human spoken language	747	(29)
Mary LeCron Foster
25.1 Introduction	748	(1)
25.2 Language as classification by analogy	748	(1)
25.3 Analogy and language as system	749	(2)
25.4 Reconstructive methodology	751	(5)
25.4.1 The comparative method	751	(1)
25.4.2 Systems in sound-change	752	(1)
25.4.3 Family trees and wave theory	752	(1)
25.4.4 Linguistic groupings	753	(1)
25.4.5 Typology	754	(1)
25.4.6 Internal reconstruction	755	(1)
25.5 Reconstructed languages	756	(3)
25.6 Hypotheses suggesting further groupings	759	(1)
25.7 Guidelines for remote reconstruction	760	(2)
25.8 Towards primordial language: the monogenetic hypothesis	762	(6)
25.8.1 Background	762	(1)
25.8.2 The phememic system	762	(1)
25.8.3 Comparison, internal reconstruction, and system for phememes	763	(4)
25.8.4 Toward a theory of the PL stem	767	(1)
25.8.5 Sorting the isoglosses	768	(1)
25.9 Wider implications of monogenetic reconstruction	768	(2)
25.9.1 The role of analogy	768	(1)
25.9.2 Internal and external analogy	769	(1)
25.9.3 The complexity of modern 'roots'	769	(1)
25.9.4 Advantages of inclusion of dissimilar languages	770	(1)
25.10 Systematic correlations in human evolution	770	(2)
25.10.1 The beginning	770	(1)
25.10.2 Hypothetical evolutionary stages	771	(1)
25.11 Language in culture	772	(1)
Notes	772	(1)
References	772	(4)
26. Theoretical stages in the prehistory of grammar	776	(17)
Leonard Rolfe
26.1 Introduction	777	(1)
26.2 Patterns of grammar	778	(1)
26.3 The frame of dialogue	779	(1)
26.4 Ostension and deixis	780	(1)
26.5 Naming and words	780	(1)
26.6 Thematization--the phonemic principle	782	(2)
26.7 Topic-comment and nominals	784	(1)
26.8 Topic-comment and case-relations	785	(1)
26.9 Narrative	786	(1)
26.10 The epistemic pattern: objectivity in discourse	787	(2)
26.11 Conclusion	789	(1)
Notes	789	(2)
References	791	(2)
27. Social and cognitive factors in the historical elaboration of writing	793	(68)
David Barton
Mary Hamilton
27.1 What is writing?	793	(7)
27.1.1 Introduction	793	(1)
27.1.2 Defining writing	794	(2)
27.1.2.1 Definitions of writing-systems	796	(1)
27.1.3 Writing and earlier forms of symbolic representation	797	(2)
27.1.4 Apparent functions and processes in early societies	799	(1)
27.1.4.1 Functions of writing	799	(1)
27.1.4.2 Materials and techniques for writing	799	(1)
27.2 The development of writing	800	(4)
27.2.1 Types of writing-system	800	(1)
27.2.1.1 Logographic script	800	(1)
27.2.1.2 Syllabic script	801	(1)
27.2.1.3 Alphabetic script	801	(1)
27.2.2 Development from one system to another	801	(1)
27.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of particular types of writing-system	802	(2)
27.2.3.1 The efficiency of scripts	803	(1)
27.2.3.2 Two principles of writing-systems	804	(1)
27.3 Literacy and cognition	804	(2)
27.3.1 Cognitive 'effects'	804	(1)
27.3.2 Speech as 'deficit'	805	(1)
27.4 Social influences	806	(7)
27.4.1 Characterizing literacy	806	(1)
27.4.2 Greek literacy	807	(1)
27.4.3 Social and economic correlates of literacy	808	(2)
27.4.3.1 Franchise and political participation	809	(1)
27.4.3.2 Employment and economic development	809	(1)
27.4.3.3 Modernity	810	(1)
27.4.4 The technology of printing	810	(1)
27.4.5 Restricted access to written language	811	(2)
27.5 Conclusions	813	(1)
Editorial appendices	813	(42)
I: Script evolution	813	(1)
II: Ehlich's developmental account of writing	814	(4)
III: Numbers and mathematics	818	(6)
IV: Music	824	(2)
V: Dance and choreography	826	(1)
VI: Cartography	826	(8)
VII: Printing	834	(20)
Notes	854	(1)
References	854	(7)
Part V: Epilogue	861	(26)
28. Tempo and mode of change in the evolution of symbolism	861	(26)
Charles R. Peters
28.1 Introduction	861	(1)
28.2 Chart I	862	(2)
28.3 Charts II and III	864	(4)
28.4 Chart IV	868	(4)
28.5 Modernity's complexity	872	(1)
Notes	873	(1)
References	874	(4)
Time Charts	878	(9)
Index	887