Handbook of Radiation Effects

by Holmes-Siedle, Andrew; Adams, Len

• ISBN13: 9780198563471
• ISBN10: 0198563477
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1993-07-29
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

This revised second edition of a popular handbook for engineers fills a gap in the fields of high-energy radiation environments, electronic device physics and materials. It is a straightforward account of the problems which arise when high-energy radiation bombards matter and of engineeringmethods for solving those problems. X-ray, electron and the'hadron's' in CERN's new collider environments and several more are described. The impact of these environments on microelectronics in computing, data processing and communication is the core of this book. A large amount of technical data, needed to make predictions on the spot, is presented, with literature references needed for further research and also a compendium of websites which have been tested and used by the authors.

Author Biography

Andrew Holmes-Siedle: Director, REM Oxford Ltd., Consultant, Brunel University Len Adams Consultant. Honorary Professor Associate, Brunel University

Table of Contents

Preface to the second edition	p. v
Preface to the first edition	p. vii
Radiation, physics, and measurement	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Radioactivity	p. 2
Types of radiation	p. 3
Units	p. 4
The measurement of radiation	p. 6
Radioactivity	p. 6
Ionization chamber	p. 6
Calorimeter	p. 7
Geiger-Muller and proportional counters	p. 7
Faraday Cup	p. 8
The Measurement of radiation by luminescence	p. 8
Perspex dosimeters	p. 11
Colour changes and optical transmission	p. 11
Fricke dosimeter	p. 12
Polyethylene and hydrogen pressure	p. 12
Silicon dosimeters	p. 12
General	p. 12
Surface-barrier p+/n/n+ particle detectors, gamma rate monitors	p. 12
p+/n/n+ diodes as neutron dosimeters	p. 13
The MOS dosimeter or RADFET	p. 13
References	p. 15
Radiation environments	p. 17
The space environment	p. 17
General	p. 17
The radiation belts	p. 18
Cosmic rays	p. 19
Geomagnetic shielding	p. 25
Other sources of cosmic rays	p. 25
Solar flares	p. 26
Trapped radiation around other planets	p. 27
SPENVIS--Earth orbit integration	p. 28
New models for trapped radiation	p. 28
Space weather	p. 28
Life science experiments and doses in low orbit	p. 30
The nuclear reactor environment	p. 31
General	p. 31
Reactor	p. 32
Reactor vessel and cavity	p. 32
Mobile nuclear reactors	p. 33
The radiation processing environment	p. 34
General	p. 34
Sources and doses	p. 34
The weapons environment	p. 35
General	p. 35
Radiation output	p. 35
Electromagnetic pulse	p. 37
The controlled-fusion environment	p. 37
The environment of robots	p. 38
High-energy physics accelerators	p. 39
Terrestrial and man-made environments	p. 43
General	p. 43
Current environmental issues	p. 44
The radon hazard	p. 48
Radiation protection	p. 49
References	p. 54
The response of materials and devices to radiation	p. 61
Fundamental damage effects	p. 61
Atomic displacement	p. 63
The nature of defects in silicon	p. 63
The intrinsic defects	p. 63
Multi-intrinsic defects	p. 64
Impurity complexes of the intrinsic defects: the trapped vacancy and trapped interstitial	p. 65
Dependence of bulk damage on particle energy and type	p. 69
Statistics of particle damage	p. 76
Degradation of transport in semiconductors	p. 76
Annealing of atomic displacement damage	p. 80
Total ionizing dose (TID) effects in devices	p. 85
Ionizing energy deposition and thin films	p. 85
Models for charge trapping in oxides after ionization	p. 86
The charge trap system at the surface of oxidized silicon	p. 88
'Colorability' of transparent materials	p. 91
General	p. 91
The dynamics of colour centres in alkali halide lattices	p. 95
How 'soft' are alkali halides and oxides?: units of colorability	p. 97
Colorability tables	p. 97
Induced radioactivity	p. 100
High dose-rate upsets (transient effects)	p. 101
General considerations	p. 101
Bulk semiconductor	p. 103
Transient photocurrents in p-n junctions	p. 104
Single-event phenomena	p. 106
General	p. 106
Single-event upset (SEU)	p. 106
Latch-up	p. 109
Consequences of long-lived degradation	p. 111
Estimating total ionizing dose (TID) or bulk damage (NIEL)	p. 113
Conclusions--an overall view of device response	p. 116
References	p. 116
Further reading	p. 128
Metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) devices	p. 129
Introduction	p. 129
Historical	p. 132
Charge trapping in MOS devices	p. 134
Oxide charge trapping and performance degradation--an overview	p. 134
MOS transistor action and threshold voltage shift	p. 134
Physical model for oxide trapped charge build-up	p. 138
General	p. 138
Interface charge trapping	p. 140
Metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) dielectrics	p. 141
Charge collection and trapping processes: the 'RAD' model	p. 141
Electrostatics in MOS devices	p. 142
Dynamics of charge collection and trapping in MIS devices	p. 144
Effect of oxide field and gate bias	p. 145
Roll-off, saturation, and turn-over in MIS devices	p. 150
'Large' MOS technology and the four-lane chart	p. 155
Submicron MOS technology and the four-lane chart	p. 157
Real MOS devices in the millenium	p. 159
MIIS systems: the dual dielectric	p. 163
Electrostatics in MIIS devices	p. 163
Charge collection and trapping processes: the 'RAID' model	p. 164
Experimental data on MIIS devices	p. 165
Time dependence	p. 169
Annealing and reverse annealing equations	p. 169
High temperature: high recovery rate	p. 171
Room temperature: some recovery	p. 171
Cryogenic temperatures: little recovery	p. 174
'Rebound', 'overshoot', or 'super-recovery'	p. 175
'Reverse annealing'	p. 176
Electron and hole injection: radiation annealing	p. 176
Dose-rate dependence: the problem of enhanced low dose-rate sensitivity (ELDRS) in dielectrics	p. 177
Border-state drift	p. 179
Transient effects	p. 180
Gamma-ray pulses	p. 180
Some advanced MOS structures: potential problems	p. 183
Introduction	p. 183
Insulator layers and trenches	p. 184
Lightly and moderately doped drains (LDD and MDD)	p. 185
Non-volatile memories	p. 185
Heavy metals disturb equilibrium	p. 187
CMOS imagers	p. 187
Ferroelectric memories	p. 188
GaAs-on-Si	p. 189
High-voltage and power CMOS ICs	p. 189
Conclusions	p. 189
References	p. 190
Further reading	p. 203
Bipolar transistors and integrated circuits	p. 205
Introduction	p. 205
Effects of radiation on device function	p. 205
Gain	p. 205
Degradation of gain	p. 206
Other permanent effects	p. 207
Transient effects	p. 209
Bulk damage	p. 209
General	p. 209
Influence of base width	p. 211
Influence of type and energy of radiation	p. 213
Irradiation resulsts	p. 216
Prediction of degradation	p. 221
Selection principles for bipolar transistors	p. 221
Surface-linked degradation in gain	p. 222
Introduction	p. 222
Statistical prediction of surface damage	p. 223
Collector-base leakage current	p. 224
The 'maverick' device	p. 224
Annealing of surface effects	p. 225
Slow thermal annealing of bulk damage	p. 225
Saturation voltage	p. 226
Long-lived radiation effects in bipolar integrated circuits	p. 227
Digital ICs	p. 228
Emitter-base surface effects in integrated transistors	p. 229
Analogue ICs	p. 231
Lateral p-n-p transistors	p. 232
Isolation technology	p. 233
Enhanced low-dose-rate sensitivity (ELDRS) in junction passivation dielectries	p. 236
Transient effects in bipolar integrated circuits	p. 238
Summary	p. 240
References	p. 241
Diodes, solar cells, and optoelectronics	p. 244
Introduction	p. 244
Changes in diode parameters	p. 245
The I-V curve	p. 245
The capacitance-voltage curve	p. 246
[Delta]I[subscript F] at low currents	p. 246
[Delta]I[subscript F] at high currents	p. 247
Reverse current [Delta]I[subscript R] and damage constant [alpha]	p. 247
Solar cells	p. 248
General	p. 248
Degradation of diffusion length	p. 248
Background	p. 250
Predicting the degradation of solar-cell arrays	p. 251
Equivalence fluences for solar cells	p. 252
Advances in photovoltaics--more tolerance?	p. 254
Low-power rectifier diodes	p. 256
p-n junctions	p. 256
Schottky-barrier diodes	p. 257
High-power rectifier diodes	p. 258
Zener diodes	p. 258
Microwave diodes	p. 259
Light-detecting devices	p. 259
Photodiodes	p. 259
Detector diodes for high-energy physics	p. 260
Introducing radiation tolerace into p+/n/n+ diodes--'defect engineering	p. 263
Wide-base p+/n/n+ diodes-forward voltage drop	p. 264
Spectroscopy and defect movement in highly-doped diodes	p. 265
Avalanche photodiodes (APD)	p. 266
Phototransistors	p. 267
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and lasers	p. 267
General	p. 267
LEDs	p. 268
Diode lasers	p. 268
Optocouplers	p. 270
Charge-coupled devices (CCDs)	p. 271
General	p. 271
Ionization effects in CCDs: principles	p. 273
Ionization effects in CCDs: test results	p. 274
Bulk damage in CCDs: principles	p. 278
Semiconductor chemistry and defect engineering	p. 280
Principles for recovering from or reducing CTI growth	p. 280
Dark current from bulk damage	p. 281
Bulk damage effects in CCDs: experiment	p. 282
Transient effects in CCDs	p. 282
In-flight prediction tools for CCDs	p. 282
Electro-optic crystals	p. 283
Opto-electronic systems	p. 284
New computational electronics	p. 284
Vacuum devices and extreme environments	p. 287
Conclusions	p. 287
References	p. 288
Power semiconductors	p. 303
General	p. 303
Bipolar power transistors	p. 303
Thyristors (silicon-controlled rectifiers	p. 305
Power MOSFETs	p. 306
Parameter changes under radiation	p. 306
Radiation-tolerant power MOS circuits	p. 307
Transient and heavy-ion-induced burn out	p. 307
Static induction transistor	p. 308
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)	p. 308
Conclusions	p. 309
References	p. 309
Optical media	p. 311
General	p. 311
Window materials and crystals	p. 312
General	p. 312
Alkali halides, oxides, glasses and colour centres	p. 312
Glasses	p. 319
The stability of colour-centres in glass	p. 325
Coatings	p. 327
Light guides	p. 327
Introduction	p. 327
Sources of 'colorability' in silica and galsses	p. 327
Prediction models for optical fibre loss versus dose	p. 328
Vapour-deposited fibre technology	p. 331
Fibres drawn from synthetic fused silica rods	p. 333
Fibre luminescence	p. 334
Polymeric optical fibres	p. 334
Neutron-gamma test results on fibres at high-dose values	p. 334
Scintillators	p. 337
Inorganic crystals and glasses	p. 337
Afterglow--long-lived luminescence after irradiation	p. 338
Conclusions	p. 340
References	p. 341
Microelectronics, sensors, MEMs, passives, and other components	p. 346
Junction field-effect and heterojunction transistors	p. 346
Introduction	p. 346
Mechanisms of degradation of FETs	p. 347
Heterojunction bipolar transistors	p. 347
Transducers	p. 350
General	p. 350
Previous transducer studies	p. 350
Temperature sensors	p. 351
Magnetics	p. 351
Superconductors	p. 354
Mechanical sensors	p. 355
General	p. 355
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMs)	p. 355
Miscellaneous electronic components	p. 356
Capacitors	p. 356
Resistors and conductors	p. 357
Quartz crystals and ferroelectric memories	p. 358
Vacuum tubes	p. 359
Semiconductor microwave devices	p. 360
Miscellaneous hardware	p. 360
References	p. 361
Polymers and other organics	p. 365
Introduction	p. 365
Radiolytic reactions	p. 366
Radiation tolerance of polymers and organics according to application	p. 368
General	p. 368
Passive polymers in electronics	p. 369
Remote handling	p. 369
Accelerator parts	p. 370
Optical fibres, windows, and scintillators	p. 370
Lubricants	p. 371
Bombardment of coatings in space	p. 371
Thin-film electronics	p. 371
Radiation processing	p. 373
Sterilization of products	p. 373
Irradiation of foods	p. 373
Radiation curing of plastics	p. 374
Resists	p. 374
Long-lived degradation in polymers	p. 374
Relative sensitivity	p. 374
Effects of additives and fillers	p. 375
Combined effects of stress (fields, vacuum, and temperature) and ageing with irradiation	p. 376
Radiation-tolerance of plastics according to technology	p. 376
General	p. 376
Thermoplastics	p. 377
Thermosetting plastics	p. 378
Elastomers	p. 378
Radiation-induced conductivity and charging in insulators	p. 379
The space environment	p. 381
Conclusion	p. 381
References	p. 382
The interaction of radiation with shielding materials	p. 386
Introduction	p. 386
Particle radiation transport and range	p. 387
General	p. 387
Range	p. 387
Transport of electrons	p. 389
Transmission coefficients for electrons	p. 389
Stopping power	p. 391
Internal spectrum	p. 392
Transport of protons and other heavy particles	p. 394
Interactions	p. 394
Energy loss and attenuation	p. 394
Electromagnetic radiation: bremsstrahlung, X- and gamma-rays	p. 395
General	p. 395
Bremsstrahlung	p. 395
Gamma rays	p. 397
Other electromagnetic radiation	p. 397
Production and attenuation of electromagnetic radiation	p. 398
Soft X-rays and vacuum ultraviolet: generation and special effects of long-wavelength X-rays	p. 403
Radiation attenuation by shielding; deposition of dose in targets	p. 407
Dose versus depth	p. 407
Shielding: relation between space radiation flux and deposited dose	p. 407
Atomic displacement damage versus depth	p. 412
Influence of material type on radiation stopping	p. 413
Deposition of dose	p. 413
Shielding materials	p. 413
Conclusions	p. 416
References	p. 417
Computer methods for particle transport	p. 420
Introduction	p. 420
Environment calculations	p. 421
Dose computation	p. 422
Space particle types	p. 422
Monte Carlo techniques	p. 423
Methods using a dose 'look-up table': SHIELDOSE	p. 424
Methods using straight-ahead approximation	p. 424
CHARGE program	p. 426
Evolving environmental software	p. 427
Sector analyses	p. 428
Evolving transport software	p. 429
Prediction of single-event upsets	p. 432
Earth orbit: SPENVIS dose-depth curves	p. 432
Neutrons, gamma-rays, and X-rays	p. 433
Conclusions	p. 434
References	p. 435
Radiation testing	p. 437
Introduction	p. 437
Radiation sources	p. 437
Simulation of radiation environments	p. 437
Gamma-rays	p. 439
X-rays: steady-state and pulsed	p. 441
Electrons: steady-state and pulsed	p. 443
Protons and pions	p. 446
Neutrons: steady-state and pulsed	p. 448
UV photon beams and other advanced oxide-injection methods	p. 450
Summary of requirements for steady-state radiation sources	p. 451
Cosmic ray upset simulation	p. 451
Heavy ions	p. 451
Fission fragments	p. 454
Laser light	p. 455
Dosimetry for radiation testing	p. 455
Test procedures for semiconductor devices	p. 457
Introduction	p. 457
Objectives	p. 459
Comparison of space with military requirements	p. 459
Radiation response specifications	p. 460
General	p. 460
Product assurance techniques and special radiation assessment	p. 460
ESA/SCC and ECSS specifications (Europe)	p. 461
BS 9000 specifications and CECC (Europe)	p. 461
MIL specifications (USA)	p. 462
ASTM specifications (USA)	p. 462
Electronic Industries Association EIA (USA)	p. 463
Comparison of standards	p. 463
Engineering materials	p. 463
Time-dependent effects and post-irradiation effects	p. 464
Conclusions	p. 468
References	p. 468
Radiation-hardening of semiconductor parts	p. 474
General	p. 474
Methodology of total-dose hardening	p. 474
Hardening of a process	p. 476
Introduction	p. 476
Material preparation and cleaning	p. 478
Oxide growth	p. 478
Oxide anneal	p. 479
Gate electrode	p. 479
Modified gate insulators	p. 480
Field oxide hardening	p. 480
Other processing steps	p. 480
Hardening for total dose by 'layout'	p. 481
Hardening against transient radiation	p. 482
Pulsed gamma rays	p. 482
Single-event upsets	p. 482
Commercial radiation-hard and radiation-tolerant technologies	p. 484
General	p. 484
Deep submicron technology	p. 484
Silicon on insulator (SOI)	p. 485
Standard products	p. 485
'Fabless' manufacturer	p. 486
Hardening of parts other than silicon	p. 487
Conclusions	p. 487
References	p. 487
Equipment hardening and hardness assurance	p. 490
Introduction	p. 490
Elementary rules of hardening	p. 490
General	p. 490
Hardening measures at the systems level	p. 491
Robots, diagnostics and military vehicles in penetrating radiation	p. 492
Manipulators for nuclear plant	p. 492
Hardening of a robotic vehicle	p. 495
Preventive replacement and fault detection	p. 497
The hardening of climbing and clean-up robots	p. 498
Energy industry	p. 502
Accelerator	p. 503
Instruments in a high-luminosity hadron collider	p. 503
Military vehicles	p. 504
General guidelines for hardening against pulsed gamma rays and neutrons	p. 506
When only vacuum electronics will do	p. 507
Equipment in non-penetrating radiation: space, x-rays, and beta rays	p. 508
Introduction	p. 508
Typical spacecraft configurations and materials	p. 510
Add-on shielding	p. 513
On-board radiation monitoring	p. 515
Hardness assurance	p. 517
General	p. 517
Hardness assurance defined	p. 517
Management of hardness assurance	p. 518
Databases	p. 519
Parts procurement and radiation design margins	p. 521
The economics of hardness assurance	p. 526
Conclusions	p. 530
References	p. 530
Further reading	p. 537
Conclusions	p. 538
Appendix
Useful general and geophysical data
Conversion factors, physical properties, and constants	p. 541
Frequency, wavelength, and energy	p. 542
Geophysical and orbital parameters and conversion factors	p. 542
Radiation quantities
Radiation units and data	p. 543
Isotope activity units: traditional and Systeme-International (SI) units of isotope activity	p. 544
Energy absorption versus photon energy for air	p. 544
Typical performance figures for high-energy radiation sources	p. 545
Typical photon energies and wavelengths	p. 546
Radioisotopes useful in radiation experiments: main emission energies	p. 547
Practical ranges of electrons in aluminium	p. 548
Selected values of range of protons in aluminium	p. 549
Range of alpha particles in silicon	p. 549
Total mass attenuation coefficients of selected materials	p. 550
Useful data on materials used in electronic equipment
Densities and chemical formulae of commercial plastics	p. 551
Radiation absorption effectiveness of various materials	p. 552
Bibliography of dosimeter research
Background references	p. 554
RADFET dosimetry	p. 554
Neutron diodes and dosimetry for other heavy particles	p. 560
Dose-depth curves for typical Earth orbits, calculated by ESA's Space Environment Information System (SPENVIS) software
Geostationary transfer orbit	p. 562
Geostationary orbit	p. 563
Low Earth orbit: polar	p. 564
Low Earth orbit: space station	p. 565
'Molniya' orbit	p. 566
Typical interplanetary mission	p. 567
Degradation in polymers in ionizing radiation
Radiation-tolerance of elastomers	p. 568
Radiation-tolerance of thermoplastic resins	p. 569
Radiation-tolerance of thermosetting resins	p. 570
Analysis of data on plastics from Figs F1-F3	p. 571
Useful Web-sites
Space agencies and government agencies	p. 571
Specifications and standards	p. 572
Radiobiological effects and health issues	p. 573
Radiation environments and effects software	p. 573
Radiation effects databases	p. 574
Solid state technology	p. 575
Radiation test facilities	p. 575
General interest in radiation effects	p. 575
Integrated web-sites with a range of related topics	p. 577
RADFET technology	p. 577
For the family	p. 577
Index	p. 579
Table of Contents provided by Syndetics. All Rights Reserved.