Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands

by Zedler; Joy B.

• ISBN13: 9780849390630
• ISBN10: 084939063X
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-08-30
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Efforts to direct the recovery of damaged sites and landscape date back as far as the 1930s. If we fully understood the conditions and controlling variables at restoration sites, we would be better equipped to predict the outcomes of restoration efforts. If there were no constraints, we could merely plant the restoration site and walk away. However, the development of restoration theory has not yet lead to predictability. The Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands fills an important gap in current restoration ecology literature. It provides a broad-based compilation of case studies and principles to guide the management of tidal restoration sites. Thoroughly illustrated with more than 170 figures and tables, the book covers a full range of topics including:· the conceptual planning for coastal wetlands restoration· strategies for the manipulation of hydrology and soils· the reestablishment of vegetation and assemblages of fishes and invertebrates· the process of assessing, monitoring, and sustaining restored wetlandsCombining detailed examples from coastal research studies along the Pacific coast of southern California with information drawn from the literature on coastal restoration across the globe, the Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands is a must-have guide if you are involved in coastal mitigation and restoration projects.

Table of Contents

Introduction	1	(38)
Joy B. Zedler
The scope of this book	1	(1)
The shortcomings of restoration ecology theory	2	(4)
The status of restoration theory	3	(1)
Relevant ecological theories	3	(1)
Models of restoration site development	4	(1)
Do restoration projects follow succession theory?	5	(1)
The lack of predictability of restoration outcomes	6	(2)
Short cordgrass	7	(1)
Scale insect outbreak	7	(1)
Effects of an annual succulent on a perennial grass	7	(1)
Effects of algae and coots	7	(1)
New understanding	8	(4)
Restoration sites follow unique developmental patterns	8	(1)
An improved conceptual framework: the restoration spectrum	9	(1)
A simple ecological restoration spectrum	9	(1)
Background	9	(2)
A more detailed conceptual framework	11	(1)
Adaptive restoration	12	(2)
Restoration in coastal wetlands	14	(2)
Challenges in coastal wetlands	14	(1)
Challenges in southern California	15	(1)
Summary and conclusion	16	(23)
References	17	(2)
Ballona Wetland	19	(1)
Anaheim Bay	20	(2)
San Dieguito Lagoon	22	(1)
Los Penasquitos Lagoon	23	(2)
Crown Point, within Mission Bay	25	(1)
Sweetwater Marsh, within San Diego Bay	26	(2)
Connector Marsh, within Sweetwater Marsh	28	(2)
Marisma de Nacion, within Sweetwater Marsh	30	(1)
Tijuana Estuary	31	(2)
Tidal Linkage, within Tijuana Estuary	33	(2)
Model Marsh, within Tijuana Estuary	35	(1)
San Quintin Bay	36	(3)
Developing a framework for restoration	39	(50)
Gabrielle Vivian-Smith
Introduction	39	(1)
Restoration goals	39	(5)
Setting goals	39	(1)
Types and value of background information	40	(1)
Locating reference sites	40	(1)
Historical records	41	(3)
Current site characteristics	44	(3)
Connectivity, configuration, and context within the larger landscape	44	(2)
Site evaluation	46	(1)
Heterogeneity in coastal wetland restoration models	47	(8)
Opportunities created by spatial heterogeneity	48	(4)
Constraints posed by spatial heterogeneity	52	(3)
Constraints posed by human use	55	(2)
Human concerns	55	(1)
The desires of local residents	56	(1)
The constraints posed by an adjacent human population	56	(1)
Stepwise planning of restoration	57	(32)
Reference data for use in restoring Tijuana Estuary	59	(5)
The importance of small-scale heterogeneity to high marsh annual plants	64	(1)
Ecotones in coastal wetland restoration	65	(1)
Evaluating disturbance effects to aid wetland restoration	66	(1)
The diversity of habitats in southern California coastal wetlands	67	(11)
Restoring endangered plant populations	78	(2)
Restoring salt marsh bird's-beak to San Diego Bay	80	(2)
Enhancing rare plant populations at Tijuana Estuary	82	(1)
References	83	(6)
Hydrology and substrate	89	(30)
John C. Callaway
Introduction	89	(3)
Restoration and creation	90	(2)
Hydrology	92	(12)
General hydrologic considerations	92	(1)
Processes of natural wetland development	93	(3)
Formation and characteristics of tidal creeks and channels	96	(2)
Freshwater inputs	98	(1)
Erosion and sedimentation	98	(1)
Storm sediment inputs	99	(2)
Restoration methods and sediment dynamics	101	(2)
Special case of subsided wetlands	103	(1)
Substrate	104	(2)
Texture	104	(1)
Organic content	104	(1)
Nutrients	105	(1)
Compaction	106	(1)
Soil salinity	106	(1)
Soil pH	106	(1)
Planning considerations	106	(2)
Hydrologic assessments	106	(1)
Identification of proper substrates	107	(1)
Evaluating existing conditions at restoration sites	107	(1)
Restoration solutions	108	(2)
Hydrology	108	(1)
Soil amendments	108	(1)
Texture amendments (clay)	109	(1)
Organic matter amendments	109	(1)
Nutrient amendments	110	(1)
Summary	110	(9)
References	111	(8)
Establishing vegetation in restored and created coastal wetlands	119	(116)
Gary Sullivan
Introduction	119	(1)
Developing a vegetation strategy	120	(10)
Planting strategies	121	(1)
Species choice	121	(1)
Maximizing diversity	121	(2)
Using reference sites	123	(1)
Plant stock	123	(1)
Nursery stock vs. local material	123	(1)
Use of seedlings	124	(2)
Use of cuttings	126	(1)
Use of sod	126	(2)
Summary	128	(2)
Plant acquisition, propagation, and maintenance	130	(9)
Seed collection and storage	130	(1)
Propagation methods	130	(1)
Seed	130	(3)
Cuttings	133	(1)
Salvaging plants with sod	134	(1)
Salvage methods	134	(2)
Storage and maintenance during construction	136	(1)
Holding ponds	137	(2)
Salvaging soils	139	(1)
Planting methods	139	(9)
Timing	139	(2)
Preparing plants for the salt marsh environment	141	(1)
Plant size	141	(1)
Salt hardening	142	(1)
Sun hardening	143	(1)
Fertilization	143	(1)
Outplanting	144	(1)
Species relative density	144	(1)
Matching species to microhabitats	144	(1)
Planting density and clustering	145	(1)
Fertilizing transplants in the field	146	(1)
Irrigation during establishment	147	(1)
Genetic considerations	148	(3)
Genetic diversity	148	(1)
Genetic structure	149	(1)
Local adaptation and genetic pollution	150	(1)
Summary	151	(84)
References	151	(6)
Plates	157	(78)
Restoring assemblages of invertebrates and fishes	235	(36)
Gregory D. Williams
Julie S. Desmond
Overview	235	(1)
Environmental parameters	236	(8)
Elevation	236	(1)
Flow rates	237	(1)
Substrate	238	(1)
Vegetation	239	(1)
Stream order and subtidal morphology	240	(2)
Landscape issues	242	(2)
Estuarine habitat assemblages, functions, and restoration	244	(14)
Subtidal assemblages	245	(2)
Subtidal function	247	(1)
Subtidal restoration	247	(1)
Intertidal flat assemblages	248	(1)
Intertidal flat function	248	(2)
Intertidal flat restoration	250	(1)
Channel assemblages	250	(1)
Channel function	250	(1)
Channel restoration	250	(2)
Creek assemblages	252	(1)
Creek function	252	(1)
Creek restoration	252	(1)
Marsh surface assemblages	252	(1)
Marsh surface function	253	(2)
The value of vegetated marshes to fish: predictions of growth using a bioenergetics model	255	(1)
Marsh surface restoration	256	(2)
Summary	258	(13)
Fish and invertebrate colonization rates in restored/created salt marsh channels	258	(4)
References	262	(9)
Assessment and monitoring	271	(66)
John C. Callaway
Gary Sullivan
Julie S. Desmond
Gregory D. Williams
Joy B. Zedler
Introduction	271	(5)
Terminology	271	(1)
The adaptive management of San Diego Bay mitigation sites	272	(2)
Information needs	274	(1)
A single reference wetland at San Diego Bay	275	(1)
Hydrology and topography	276	(5)
Objectives	276	(1)
Inundation regime	276	(2)
Ground water levels	278	(1)
Flow rates	278	(1)
Creek development	279	(1)
Changes in marsh surface elevation: accretion and erosion	279	(1)
Vertical reference points	279	(1)
Marker horizons and sedimentation elevation tables (SETs)	280	(1)
Water quality	281	(4)
Objectives	281	(2)
Water temperature and dissolved oxygen	283	(1)
Water salinity and pH	283	(1)
Light attenuation and turbidity	283	(1)
Water column stratification	284	(1)
Nutrients (inorganic N and P)	284	(1)
Soils: substrate qualities, nutrient dynamics	285	(9)
Objectives	285	(1)
Soil sample collection	286	(1)
Porewater collection	286	(2)
Water content (soil moisture)	288	(1)
Bulk density	288	(1)
Soil texture	289	(1)
Soil salinity	289	(1)
Soil pH	290	(1)
Redox potential	290	(1)
Organic matter and organic carbon content	291	(1)
Nitrogen	292	(1)
Phosphorus	293	(1)
Decomposition	293	(1)
Elevation, global positioning systems, and geographic information systems	294	(3)
Determining elevation	294	(1)
Global positioning sysytems (GPS)	295	(1)
Geographic information systems (GIS)	296	(1)
Vegetation	297	(11)
Introduction	297	(1)
Vegetation as an indicator of ecosystem functioning	297	(2)
Mapping the vegetation	299	(1)
Remote sensing	299	(1)
Vegetation attributes to assess	300	(1)
Vegetation transects and quadrats	300	(1)
Plant cover	301	(2)
Canopy architecture	303	(1)
Target species	303	(1)
Biomass and nitrogen pools of marsh primary producers	304	(1)
Productivity estimates based on carbon fixation	304	(1)
Standing crop and its use in estimating productivity	305	(1)
Nondestructive estimation of aboveground biomass	305	(1)
Belowground biomass	306	(1)
Algal abundance and productivity	307	(1)
Plant tissue nitrogen concentrations	308	(1)
Invertebrates	308	(5)
Reference site selection	308	(1)
Sample timing	309	(1)
Sampling methods	309	(1)
Infauna	309	(1)
Epifauna	310	(1)
Nektonic invertebrates	311	(1)
Sampling parameters	311	(1)
Sample identification	311	(2)
Fishes	313	(7)
Estuary management and habitat value for juvenile California halibut: predictions of growth using a bioenergetics model	315	(2)
Reference site selection	317	(1)
Sample timing	317	(1)
Sampling gear	317	(2)
Population structure	319	(1)
Residence time	319	(1)
Diet and feeding	320	(1)
Growth rate	320	(1)
Recommendations for minimum monitoring	320	(17)
Numbers of sampling stations	322	(1)
Sampling period	323	(1)
References	324	(13)
Sustaining restored wetlands: identifying and solving management problems	337	(26)
John C. Callaway
Gary Sullivan
Introduction	337	(1)
Irrigation	338	(2)
When to irrigate	338	(1)
Irrigation schedule	339	(1)
Exotic species invasions	340	(1)
Replanting	340	(5)
Should you replant?	341	(1)
Timing	341	(1)
Fertilizers	341	(1)
Case study: replanting at the Tidal Linkage	341	(3)
Case study: no replanting at Mission Bay (Crown Point)	344	(1)
Recommendations	345	(1)
Herbivory	345	(3)
Birds	346	(1)
Mammals	347	(1)
Insects	347	(1)
Recommendations	348	(1)
Macroalgal blooms	348	(2)
Potential impacts at restoration sites	349	(1)
Sedimentation issues	350	(3)
Target elevations: the strategy of overexcavation and dredge spoil consolidation	350	(1)
Sediment dynamics in the early phases of restoration	351	(1)
Storm sediment impacts	352	(1)
Management implications	352	(1)
Exotic plant invasions	353	(3)
Dispersal-limited species	353	(1)
Disturbance-limited species	354	(1)
Potential impacts of exotic plants	355	(1)
Management implications	356	(1)
Exotic animal species	356	(1)
Problem species of invertebrates and fish and their impacts	356	(1)
Human activities	357	(1)
Access issues	357	(1)
Pollutants: nutrients, toxic materials, and trash	358	(1)
Summary	358	(5)
References	359	(4)
Conclusions and future directions	363	(4)
Joy B. Zedler
Overview	363	(2)
Conclusions	365	(2)
References	366	(1)
Appendix 1: Native and nonnative salt marsh plant species of San Diego County	367	(2)
Gary Sullivan
Appendix 2: Coastal wetland plant species of southern California	369	(26)
Gary Sullivan
Gregory B. Noe
Appendix 3: Distribution of plant species in coastal wetlands of San Diego County	395	(4)
Gary Sullivan
Gregory B. Noe
Appendix 4: Habitat and elevational distribution of salt marsh plant species	399	(2)
Gary Sullivan
Appendix 5: Ecological and life history characteristics of common southern California salt marsh invertebrate species	401	(10)
Julie S. Desmond
Janelle M. West
Gregory D. Williams
Appendix 6: Habitat functional requirements for common fish species in southern California salt marshes, lagoons, and estuaries	411	(14)
Gregory D. Williams
Julie S. Desmond
Sharook P. Madon
Janelle M. West
Index	425