Handbook of Urban and Community Forestry in the Northeast

by Kuser, John E.

• ISBN13: 9780306461613
• ISBN10: 0306461617
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-04-01
• Publisher: Kluwer Academic Pub

Summary

This volume is a handbook that encompasses all aspects of urban forestry. Chapters cover topics from legal, financial, and managerial matters to the fundamentals of planting, maintaining, and recycling trees and green areas in cities and towns in the Northeast and Middle-Atlantic regions. There is currently no other book that treats this region so comprehensively. The book will be a resource for professionals in forestry, conservation, urban planning, and landscape architecture.

Table of Contents

The Origins of Urban Forestry
Jean Koch
Introduction	1	(1)
Agricultural Revolution	1	(1)
Development of Urban Areas and Vegetation Use	2	(1)
Ancient Times	2	(1)
Dark Ages	2	(1)
Medieval Times	2	(1)
Middle Ages	2	(1)
Modern European Urban Design	3	(3)
Garden Allee	3	(1)
Wall Promenade	3	(1)
Waterside Promenade	3	(1)
Malls and Cours	3	(1)
Exterior Avenues	4	(1)
Baroque Boulevard	4	(1)
Interior Avenues	4	(1)
Place	5	(1)
Boulevard	5	(1)
Industrial Revolution and Romanticism	6	(1)
American Urban Development	6	(2)
Cities and Towns	6	(1)
Industrial Revolution	7	(1)
Romantic Movement	7	(1)
Recent Developments and Ideas for the Future	8	(1)
Legislation and the Scientific Treatment of Trees	8	(3)
Development of Horticulture and Arboriculture	8	(1)
Knowledge, Organizations, and Laws	8	(1)
Urban Forestry	9	(1)
References	10	(1)
Understanding the Benefits and Costs of Urban Forest Ecosystems
David J. Nowak
John F. Dwyer
Introduction	11	(1)
Physical--Biological Benefits and Costs of Urban Vegetation	11	(7)
Urban Atmosphere	12	(4)
Urban Hydrology	16	(1)
Urban Noise	17	(1)
Urban Wildlife and Biodiversity	17	(1)
Social--Economic Benefits and Costs of Urban Vegetation	18	(3)
Benefits to Individuals	18	(1)
Benefits to Communities	19	(1)
Real Estate Values	20	(1)
Tree Value Formulas	20	(1)
Other Benefits and Costs of Urban Trees and Forests	21	(1)
Benefit-Cost Analysis	21	(1)
Implications for Planning, Design, and Management	22	(5)
References	22	(5)
Arboriculture Law in the Northeast
Victor D. Merullo
General Tree Law	27	(5)
Enabling Statutes for Municipal Commissions to Care for Trees	32	(11)
References	40	(3)
Tree Ordinances
Michael V. D'Errico
Introduction	43	(1)
Planning for an Ordinance	44	(1)
Legal Authority	44	(1)
Drafting a Tree Ordinance	44	(1)
Three Functions of a Successful Ordinance	45	(1)
Ordinance Sections	45	(1)
Linking to Specifications and Standards	46	(15)
References	59	(2)
Community Planning and the Natural Environment
William F. Elmendorf
The Natural Environment Benefits Community	61	(1)
Community	62	(1)
Community Development	63	(1)
Planning	64	(1)
Community Planning	64	(5)
Problems with Community Planning	69	(1)
Strategies for Planning and Land Use Regulation	70	(3)
Closing Thoughts	73	(4)
Natural Resource Managers and Planners Working Together	73	(1)
Strengthen Community Planning	73	(1)
Excellent Leadership	74	(1)
An Ecosystem Approach	74	(1)
A Broader Environmental Ethic	74	(1)
References	74	(3)
Urban and Community Forestry: Planning and Design
Steven Strom
Planning the Urban Forest	77	(2)
What Is the Urban Forest	77	(1)
Who Is Responsible	78	(1)
What Are the Objectives	78	(1)
Elements of the Urban Forest	79	(6)
Nodes	80	(3)
Links	83	(2)
Design and Urban Forestry	85	(6)
Streets	85	(2)
Plazas and Squares	87	(1)
Parks and Open Spaces	87	(3)
Parking Lots	90	(1)
Community Gateways	90	(1)
Planning and Design: Future Opportunities	91	(3)
Vacant and Underutilized Land and Brownfields	91	(2)
Productive Landscapes	93	(1)
Highway Interchanges	93	(1)
Conclusion	94	(1)
References	94	(1)
The Inventory and Systematic Management
Richard S. Wolowicz
Michael Gera
Introduction	95	(1)
Shade Tree Inventory	95	(1)
Inventory and Systematic Management	96	(1)
Benefits of Systematic Management	97	(1)
Different Types of Inventories	97	(1)
Random Sample	97	(1)
100% Sample	97	(1)
The Record-Keeping System	98	(1)
Mechanics of Conducting a Tree Inventory	99	(1)
Data Collection	100	(2)
Training Issues	102	(1)
Case Study	102	(1)
Automation	102	(1)
Surveying the Marketplace for Hardware, Software, and Training	103	(1)
Assessing Internal and External Resources	104	(1)
Developing a Project Work Plan	104	(1)
Choosing Hardware and Software	104	(1)
Review and Implement the Project Work Plan	105	(1)
1Evaluate the Project Work Plan	106	(1)
Conclusion	106	(1)
References	106	(1)
Urban and Community Forestry Financing and Budgeting
Robert L. Tate
Introduction	107	(2)
History and Overview	107	(1)
Sources of Funding	108	(1)
Competition for Budget Funds	108	(1)
Justification for Budget Funds	109	(1)
Funding Sources	109	(5)
The Property Tax	109	(2)
Aid from Federal and State Governments	111	(3)
Budgeting	114	(2)
Competing for a Fair Share of Budget Funds with Other Local Governmental Agencies	114	(1)
Allocation of Budget Funds to Various Tree Management Activities	115	(1)
Establishment of Priorities for Various Tree Management Activities	115	(1)
Urban and Community Tree Inventories and Their Role in Financing and Budgeting Urban and Community Forestry Activities	116	(3)
Use of the Inventory to Create an Urban Tree Management Program	116	(1)
Use of the Inventory to Gain Increased Funding	116	(1)
Use of the Inventory to Insulate against Budget Reductions	117	(1)
Use of the Inventory to Manage the Urban and Community Forest More Efficiently	118	(1)
Summary	119	(2)
References	119	(2)
Community Involvement in Urban Forestry Programs
James Nichnadowicz
Introduction	121	(1)
Public Awareness	121	(5)
Leaflets	122	(1)
Annual Reports	122	(1)
News Releases	123	(1)
Lectures	123	(2)
Television	125	(1)
Videotapes	125	(1)
Comment Forms	125	(1)
Image Check	125	(1)
Relations with Local Elected Officials	126	(1)
Involving Volunteers in Your Community Forestry Program	127	(7)
Laying the Foundation for Volunteer Involvement in Your Forestry Program	128	(1)
Analyzing the Job You Need Done Helps Target Recruitment Efforts	128	(2)
Applications for Screening and Clarification	130	(1)
Advertising to Find Volunteers	130	(1)
Who to Accept into Your Program	130	(1)
Benefits of Training Volunteers	130	(2)
Training Volunteers	132	(1)
Financing Volunteer Training and Locating Teachers for Your Training Sessions	133	(1)
Challenges of Volunteer Use in Your Program	133	(1)
Conclusion	134	(3)
References	135	(1)
Suggestions for Further Information	135	(2)
Soils: The Keys to Successful Establishment of Urban Vegetation
George A. Hawver
Nina L. Bassuk
Introduction	137	(1)
Tree Roots	137	(1)
Soil Properties	138	(7)
Physical Properties	138	(5)
Chemical Properties	143	(2)
Biological Properties	145	(1)
Urban Soils Distinguished from Natural Soils	145	(1)
Destruction of Soil Structure	145	(1)
Reduced Aeration and Drainage	146	(1)
Elevated Soil pH	146	(1)
Additional Characteristics	146	(1)
Preventing Soil Compaction	146	(2)
Surface Treatments	147	(1)
Choice of Soil Texture	147	(1)
Restricting Access	147	(1)
Compaction Remediation	148	(1)
Radial Trenching	148	(1)
Mulch Applications	149	(1)
Fracturing with Compressed Air or Water	149	(1)
Mechanical Breakup	149	(1)
Soil Amendments	149	(1)
Soil Volume	149	(1)
Soil Volume Assessment	150	(1)
Soil Volume Modification	150	(1)
Soil Specification Summary	150	(4)
Texture	151	(1)
Soil Reaction	151	(1)
Organic Matter	151	(1)
Soluble Salts and Nutrients	151	(1)
Contaminants	151	(1)
References	152	(2)
Selecting Trees for Community Landscapes
Henry D. Gerhold
William Porter
The Selection Process	154	(1)
Defining Purposes of Trees in the Landscape	154	(2)
Evaluating Site Conditions	156	(2)
Arboricultural Practices	158	(1)
Selection Criteria	159	(1)
Using Selection Criteria to Make Choices	160	(7)
Computer Selection Methods	167	(2)
References	167	(2)
Guide to Selecting and Specifying Quality Nursery Stock
Jim Sellmer
Larry Kuhns
Introduction	169	(1)
Selecting Quality Trees	169	(8)
Plant Nomenclature	169	(1)
Nursery Sources	170	(1)
Aboveground Quality	171	(2)
Belowground Quality	173	(1)
A Summary of Nursery Production Practices That Affect Postplanting Survival and Growth	174	(3)
Writing Bid Specifications	177	(2)
Realities	177	(1)
Resources	178	(1)
Specifying Quality Results	179	(6)
The General Form	180	(1)
Business Section Details	180	(2)
The Project Section Details	182	(3)
Conclusions	185	(1)
Appendix: Plant Locator Resources on the Internet	186	(3)
References	186	(3)
Planting and Maintenance
James W. Consolloy
Introduction	189	(1)
Site Selection	189	(3)
Temperature and Hardiness	190	(1)
Water as a Factor	190	(1)
Light Considerations	191	(1)
Air Quality	191	(1)
Soil Conditions	191	(1)
Biological Factors	192	(1)
Physiological and Morphological Factors	192	(1)
Site-Specific Factors	192	(1)
Transportation, Care, and Handling	193	(1)
When and How to Plant	194	(6)
Soils: Native versus Amended	194	(1)
Planting Hole	195	(1)
Pruning	196	(1)
Fertilizing	197	(1)
Bare-root Planting	198	(1)
Balled and Burlapped Planting	198	(1)
Container Planting	199	(1)
Large Tree Transplanting	200	(1)
Staking and Guying	200	(1)
Mulching	201	(1)
Watering	201	(1)
Tree Care and Maintenance	202	(3)
References	203	(1)
Other Suggested Reading	203	(2)
Pruning
Robert M. Argent
Introduction	205	(1)
Pruning in Nature	205	(1)
Reasons for Pruning	206	(1)
Pruning for Form	206	(1)
Pruning for Strength	206	(1)
Pruning for Tree Health	207	(1)
Pruning for Safety	207	(1)
Pruning for Aesthetics	207	(1)
Pruning for Production	207	(1)
Seasonal Timing of Pruning	207	(1)
Pruning Evergreens	208	(1)
Pruning Deciduous Trees	208	(1)
Life Cycle Pruning	208	(1)
Newly Planted Tree	209	(1)
First Three Years	209	(1)
Four to Six Years	209	(1)
Mature Trees	209	(1)
Proper Pruning Cuts	209	(1)
Pruning Methods	210	(2)
Basal Pruning	210	(1)
Heading Back	210	(1)
Thinning Out	210	(2)
Maintenance Pruning	212	(1)
Utility Pruning	212	(1)
Pruning Categories	212	(1)
Treatment of Pruning Wounds	213	(1)
Summary	213	(2)
References	213	(1)
Other Suggested Reading	214	(1)
Trees, Utilities, and Municipalities
Robert F. Lee
Richard S. Wolowicz
Introduction	215	(1)
Background	215	(1)
Tree and Wire Conflict	216	(1)
Regulations	216	(2)
Myths about Utility Line Clearance Programs	218	(3)
Utilities and Municipalities Working Together	221	(3)
Avoiding Municipal-Utility Conflicts	222	(1)
Joint Ventures	222	(2)
Summary	224	(3)
References	225	(2)
Tree Roots versus Sidewalks and Sewers
William R. Comery
Introduction	227	(1)
Root Systems	227	(7)
Identification of Root Systems	227	(1)
How and Why Root Systems Grow	228	(2)
What Problems Impede Root System Growth?	230	(1)
Common Sidewalk Problems	230	(1)
Common Sewer Problems	231	(1)
What Is the Government's Responsibility When Trees Conflict with Sidewalks and Sewers?	232	(2)
Choosing the Right Tree for the Right Spot	234	(9)
Tree Species Selection	235	(1)
Planning for the Future	235	(2)
Proper Planting Location	237	(2)
Proper Construction Practices	239	(1)
Options to Fix Sidewalks	240	(2)
References	242	(1)
Hazard Tree Inspection, Evaluation, and Management
E. Thomas Smiley
Bruce R. Fraedrich
Peter H. Fengler
Introduction	243	(1)
Methods of Tree Evaluation and Hazard Assessment	244	(1)
Identification of Hazardous Conditions	244	(9)
Tree Location	245	(1)
Problem Conditions and Locations	246	(1)
Tree Defects	246	(3)
Decay	249	(2)
Root Defect Evaluation	251	(1)
Symptoms of Root Problems	252	(1)
Management of Hazard Trees	253	(6)
Decision Making	254	(1)
Strength Loss Thresholds from Stem Decay	255	(3)
Utility Line Clearance and Tree Hazards	258	(1)
Storms and Tree Hazards	259	(1)
Summary	259	(2)
References	260	(1)
Integrated Pest Management
Deborah Smith-Fiola
Introduction	261	(2)
Pest Resistance	261	(1)
Target Pest Resurgence	262	(1)
Secondary Pest Outbreaks	262	(1)
Monitoring	263	(4)
Key Plants and Key Pests	267	(1)
IPM Pest Control Strategies	268	(5)
Cultural Control	268	(2)
Mechanical Control	270	(1)
Biological Control	271	(1)
Microbial and Viral Control	272	(1)
Pesticides and Biorational Pesticides	272	(1)
Summary	273	(14)
References	273	(1)
Case Studies	274	(1)
Sycamore Anthracnose	274	(1)
Eastern Tent Caterpillar	275	(2)
Dutch Elm Disease	277	(2)
Gypsy Moth	279	(2)
Banded Ash Clearwing Borer	281	(2)
Hemlock Woolly Adelgid	283	(2)
Chestnut Blight	285	(2)
Tree Appraisal: The Goal Is Equity
James B. Ingram
Introduction	287	(1)
Appraisal Procedures	288	(2)
Qualifications of the Tree and Plant Appraiser	289	(1)
Diagnostic Instruments and Tools	289	(1)
Two Basic Methods of Plant Appraisal	290	(1)
Replacement Cost	290	(1)
Trunk Formula	291	(1)
Factors That Affect Tree Value	291	(13)
Condition	291	(5)
Location	296	(4)
Species	300	(1)
Size	301	(2)
Replacement Cost and Basic Price	303	(1)
Summary of Trunk Formula Method	304	(1)
Compounded Replacement Cost	304	(2)
Cost of Repair and Cost of Cure Methods	306	(1)
Plant Appraisals and Property Worth	307	(2)
Estimating Total Property Value	307	(1)
Contributory Value of Trees, Shrubs, and Other Vegetation	307	(1)
Arboricultural Appraisal Law and Property Value	308	(1)
Summary: Role of the Appraiser and the Appraisal Process in Urban Forestry	309	(2)
References	310	(1)
Leaf Composting
Peter F. Strom
Melvin S. Finstein
Introduction	311	(2)
Background	311	(1)
Current Management Alternatives	312	(1)
Process, Product, and Objectives	313	(1)
Composting (the Process)	313	(1)
Compost (the Product)	314	(1)
Composting Objectives	314	(1)
Underlying Scientific Principles	314	(3)
Temperature	314	(1)
Oxygen	315	(1)
Windrow Size and Turning	315	(1)
Water	315	(1)
pH	315	(1)
Inorganic Nutrients	316	(1)
Microorganisms	316	(1)
Destruction of Pathogens and Weed Seeds	316	(1)
Leaf Type	316	(1)
Pregrinding	316	(1)
Facility Siting and Initial Preparation	317	(4)
Public Participation	317	(1)
Area Requirement	317	(1)
Buffer Zone	318	(1)
Location	319	(1)
Stream Encroachment and Water Pollution	319	(1)
Slope and Grading	320	(1)
Percolation and Water Table	320	(1)
Water Supply	320	(1)
Security	320	(1)
On-Site Roads	321	(1)
Fire and Other Safety Considerations	321	(1)
Appropriate Level of Technology	321	(7)
Minimal Technology	321	(1)
Low-Level Technology	322	(4)
Intermediate-Level Technology	326	(1)
High-Level Technology	327	(1)
Management of Other Yard Wastes	328	(1)
Grass Clippings	328	(1)
Woody Materials	329	(1)
Other Organic Materials	329	(1)
Potential Problems and Their Solutions	329	(5)
Odor	329	(3)
Leachate	332	(1)
Inadequate Composting Rate	332	(1)
Bags	333	(1)
Aspergillus fumigatus	333	(1)
Toxic Contaminants	333	(1)
Other Potential Problems	334	(1)
Use of Leaf and Yard Waste Compost	334	(3)
References	335	(2)
Urban Tree Removals
Donald F. Blair
Introduction	337	(1)
Reasons for Removal	337	(1)
Understanding Tree Failure	338	(1)
Biological Failure	338	(1)
Mechanical Failure	338	(1)
Removal Options	339	(3)
Mechanical Options	339	(1)
Manual Methods	340	(1)
Safety in Tree Removal	341	(1)
Planning a Removal Operation	342	(1)
Thoughts on Tree Removal	343	(5)
Bid Specifications	348	(2)
Conclusion	350	(9)
Appendix A	351	(1)
Cordage Manufacturers	351	(1)
Chainsaw Manufacturers	351	(1)
Associations	351	(1)
Arborist Supplies	352	(1)
Appendix B	353	(1)
Applicable American National Standards	353	(1)
Applicable Federal Regulations	353	(1)
Appendix C	353	(1)
Tree Removal Work Plan Assessment Form	353	(1)
Job Site Safety	354	(1)
Removal Plan	355	(1)
Appendix D	355	(1)
Recommended Guidelines for Safety Training and Standard Performance for Qualified Personnel	355	(2)
References	357	(2)
Recycling Urban Tree Removals
Edward A. Lempicki
Edward Cesa
Introduction	359	(1)
The Market	360	(1)
Products and Specifications	361	(8)
General Sawlog Specifications	362	(1)
Metal and Other Foreign Material in Street Trees	362	(2)
Proper Log Manufacturing	364	(1)
Log Loading and Unloading Safety Procedures	365	(1)
Log Quantities and Volume Determination	365	(4)
Storage Requirements	369	(1)
Marketing Merchantable Sawlogs	369	(4)
Commercial Sawmill Operations	369	(2)
Local Crafters/Hobbyists/Custom Sawmillers	371	(1)
In-house Markets: Viable Options for Municipalities	372	(1)
Appendix: State Forestry Offices	373	(6)
References	377	(2)
Tree City USA
John Rosenow
Mary Yager
History	379	(1)
Benefits of Tree City USA	380	(1)
How to Become a Tree City USA	381	(3)
Tree Board or Department	383	(1)
Tree Care Ordinance	383	(1)
Community Forestry Program with Annual Budget at Least $2 per Capita	383	(1)
Arbor Day Proclamation and Observance	383	(1)
Tree City USA Growth Award	384	(1)
Tree Line USA	384	(1)
Conclusion	385	(4)
References	386	(3)
A Case Study of Paramus, New Jersey: A ``Tree City USA'' Community
William R. Comery
Introduction	389	(1)
History of Paramus, New Jersey	389	(1)
Shade Tree Commission Established	390	(2)
Tree City USA Award	392	(2)
Tree City USA Growth Award	394	(3)
Attracting and Managing for Wildlife
Kathleen E. Clark
Introduction	397	(1)
Attitudes toward Wildlife	398	(1)
Elements of Wildlife Habitat	398	(2)
Cover	398	(1)
Food	399	(1)
Water	399	(1)
Arrangement of Elements in the Landscape	399	(1)
Wildlife in Urban and Suburban Landscapes	400	(4)
Typical Species	400	(3)
Benefits	403	(1)
Problems and Nuisance Wildlife	403	(1)
Managing for Wildlife	404	(7)
Attracting Birds	404	(1)
Attracting Other Wildlife	405	(2)
Managing to Discourage ``Problem'' Wildlife	407	(2)
References	409	(2)
Managing Urban Ecosystems: A Look to the Future of Urban Forestry
L. Robert Neville
Introduction	411	(3)
Sustainable Development	412	(2)
Existing Management Responsibilities for Urban Natural Systems	414	(1)
The Need for a Comprehensive Management Approach	414	(1)
Establishing a Context for Urban Forest Resource Management	414	(5)
The Urban--Rural Continuum	414	(1)
Ecosystem Classification: Natural to Human Dominated	415	(3)
Linking Ecosystem Structure and Function	418	(1)
The Mulitfunctional Role of Vegetation in Urban Environments	418	(1)
Expanding the Scope of Urban Forestry	419	(2)
Linking Green Infrastructure to Economic Development	419	(1)
Eleven Steps toward Managing Urban Ecosystems	419	(2)
Conclusion	421	(4)
Sustainability as a Central Issue in the 2lst Century	421	(1)
The Importance of Context in Natural Resource Decision Making	422	(1)
Managing Urban Ecosystems: An Expanded Role for Urban Foresters	422	(1)
References	423	(2)
Index	425