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Prof. Dr.-Ing., Dpil.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Hans Wilhelm Alfen is head of the chair of Construction Economics at the Bauhaus-Universität Weimer in Germany, General Manager and founder of Alfen Consult GmbH, Weimar, and Partner of BIBS CAPITAL AG, Zürich. He has more than 20 years of practical experience in developing and investing in infrastructure as well as researching and teaching in more than 25 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin-America. Before joining the Bauhaus-Universität Weimer he worked in leading positions in the construction as well as in the consulting industry. Professor Alfen is significantly involved in the German PPP standardisation process as researcher and advisor. He can refer to a long list of national and international publications.
Figures | p. ix |
Tables | p. xi |
Preface | p. xiii |
Acknowledgements | p. xv |
Introduction | p. xvii |
Background and Objectives | p. xvii |
Structure | p. xix |
Infrastructure - An Overview | p. 1 |
Demand for Infrastructure | p. 1 |
Definition and Characteristics of Infrastructure | p. 7 |
Infrastructure sectors | p. 11 |
Types of infrastructure companies | p. 12 |
Role of the private sector and PPPs | p. 13 |
Value added and value chains | p. 14 |
Greenfield versus brownfield investments | p. 16 |
Sources of revenue and financing | p. 18 |
Competition and regulation | p. 19 |
Infrastructure Investments | p. 21 |
Infrastructure as an Asset Class | p. 22 |
Investors in infrastructure | p. 22 |
Risk-return profile of infrastructure investments | p. 26 |
Portfolio diversification through infrastructure | p. 36 |
Infrastructure Investment Opportunities | p. 40 |
Listed infrastructure investments | p. 40 |
Unlisted infrastructure investments | p. 42 |
Direct investments/co-investments | p. 54 |
Organisational Models of Infrastructure Implementation | p. 55 |
Privatisation Models | p. 55 |
Formal privatisation | p. 57 |
Functional privatisation | p. 59 |
Material privatisation | p. 59 |
Partnership Models | p. 62 |
Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) as vertical or vertical/horizontal partnerships | p. 64 |
Partial material privatisation as a horizontal partnership | p. 68 |
Business Models | p. 69 |
Budget-financed remuneration | p. 69 |
User-financed remuneration | p. 70 |
(PPP) Contractual Models | p. 70 |
PPP contract models in social infrastructure | p. 72 |
PPP contract models for roads and highways | p. 76 |
Interim summary: various 'privatisation paths' | p. 78 |
Financing Models | p. 80 |
Characteristics of Selected Infrastructure Sectors and Sub-Sectors | p. 81 |
Transport | p. 82 |
Cross-sector characteristics | p. 82 |
Road transport | p. 87 |
Rail transport | p. 95 |
Air transport | p. 102 |
Water transport | p. 111 |
Water Supply and Sewage Disposal | p. 119 |
Characteristics and organisation | p. 119 |
Sources of revenue and value added | p. 125 |
Competition and regulation | p. 127 |
Privatisation, private sector involvement and PPP | p. 128 |
Waste Disposal | p. 130 |
Characteristics and organisation | p. 130 |
Sources of revenue and value added | p. 135 |
Competition and regulation | p. 138 |
Privatisation, private sector involvement and PPP | p. 139 |
Project Finance | p. 141 |
Project Finance - History and Basics | p. 141 |
PPP and Project Finance | p. 143 |
Basic Structure of Project Finance | p. 145 |
Characteristics | p. 146 |
Project participants and other stakeholders | p. 148 |
Objectives and contributions of project participants | p. 154 |
Typical contractual framework for project finance | p. 156 |
Structuring Project Finance - Traditional and in PPPs | p. 158 |
Phase I - Advisory | p. 161 |
Phase II - Project analysis | p. 162 |
Phase III - Risk analysis and allocation | p. 165 |
Phase IV - Financing | p. 184 |
Phase V - Implementation and monitoring | p. 194 |
Financing Instruments | p. 197 |
Equity | p. 197 |
Mezzanine Capital | p. 202 |
Debt | p. 202 |
Bank loans | p. 203 |
Bonds | p. 206 |
Short-term finance | p. 207 |
Government Support Schemes | p. 207 |
National development banks | p. 208 |
European Investment Bank | p. 211 |
European PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC) | p. 213 |
European Commission | p. 214 |
Governmental export credit and direct investment insurance - ECAs | p. 214 |
Asset-Backed Securities | p. 215 |
Sale and Leaseback | p. 217 |
Derivatives | p. 217 |
Futures | p. 218 |
Options | p. 219 |
Cash Flow Calculations and Sensitivity Analyses | p. 221 |
Items Requiring Inclusion in Cash Flow Analysis | p. 221 |
Cash flow modelling | p. 224 |
Present Value and Discount Rates | p. 225 |
Analysis of Financial Covenants | p. 226 |
Sensitivity Analysis | p. 229 |
References | p. 233 |
Further Reading | p. 241 |
Index | p. 243 |
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