An Introduction to Optical Stellar Interferometry

by A. Labeyrie , S. G. Lipson , P. Nisenson

• ISBN13: 9780521828727
• ISBN10: 0521828724
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-07-24
• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Summary

During the last two decades, optical stellar interferometry has become an important tool in astronomical investigations requiring spatial resolution well beyond that of traditional telescopes. This is the first book to be written on the subject. The authors provide an extended introduction discussing basic physical and atmospheric optics, which establishes the framework necessary to present the ideas and practice of interferometry as applied to the astronomical scene. They follow with an overview of historical, operational and planned interferometric observatories, and a selection of important astrophysical discoveries made with them. Finally, they present some as-yet untested ideas for instruments both on the ground and in space which may allow us to image details of planetary systems beyond our own.

Author Biography

Antoine Labeyrie is Professor at the College de France Stephen G. Lipson is Chair of Electro-Optics and Professor of Physics at Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa Peter Nisenson sutudied physics and optics before becoming a professional astronomer at the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations	xii
Preface	xxviii
Introduction	1	(8)
Historical introduction	1	(6)
About this book	7	(2)
References	7	(2)
Basic concepts: a qualitative introduction	9	(14)
A qualitative introduction to the basic concepts and ideas	9	(4)
Young's experiment (1801--3)	9	(2)
Using Young's slits to measure the size of a light source	11	(2)
Some basic wave concepts	13	(6)
Plane waves	15	(1)
Huygens' principle	15	(2)
Superposition	17	(2)
Electromagnetic waves and photons	19	(4)
References	22	(1)
Interference, diffraction and coherence	23	(41)
Interference and diffraction	23	(17)
Interference and interferometers	24	(4)
Diffraction using the scalar wave approximation	28	(3)
Fraunhofer diffraction patterns of some simple apertures	31	(6)
The point spread function	37	(2)
The optical transfer function	39	(1)
Coherent light	40	(4)
The effect of uncertainties in the frequency and wave vector	40	(1)
Coherent light and its importance to interferometry	41	(1)
Partial coherence	41	(1)
Spatial coherence	42	(1)
Temporal coherence	43	(1)
A quantitative discussion of coherence	44	(8)
Coherence function	45	(1)
The relationship between the coherence function and fringe visibility	45	(1)
Van Cittert--Zernike theorem	46	(6)
Fluctuations in light waves	52	(12)
A statistical model for quasimonochromatic light	52	(3)
The second-order coherence function	55	(1)
Photon noise	56	(2)
Photodetectors	58	(4)
References	62	(2)
Aperture synthesis	64	(24)
Aperture synthesis	64	(7)
The optics of aperture synthesis	64	(2)
Sampling the (u, v) plane	66	(3)
The optimal geometry of multiple telescope arrangements	69	(2)
From data to image: the phase problem	71	(4)
Phase closure	73	(2)
Image restoration and the crowding limitation	75	(3)
Algorithmic image restoration methods	76	(1)
The crowding limitation	77	(1)
Signal detection for aperture synthesis	78	(3)
Wave mixing and heterodyne recording	78	(3)
A quantum interpretation of aperture synthesis	81	(2)
A lecture demonstration of aperture synthesis	83	(5)
References	87	(1)
Optical effects of the atmosphere	88	(32)
Introduction	88	(2)
A qualitative description of optical effects of the atmosphere	90	(3)
Quantitative measures of the atmospheric aberrations	93	(3)
Kolmogorov's (1941) description of turbulence	93	(2)
Parameters describing the optical effects of turbulence: Correlation and structure functions. B(r) and D(r).	95	(1)
Phase fluctuations in a wave propagating through the atmosphere	96	(6)
Fried's parameter r0 describes the size of the atmospheric correlation region	99	(1)
Correlation between phase fluctuations in waves with different angles of incidence: the isoplanatic patch	100	(2)
Temporal fluctuations	102	(6)
The wind-driven ``frozen turbulence'' hypothesis	102	(1)
Frequency spectrum of fluctuations	102	(1)
Intensity fluctuations: twinkling	103	(5)
Dependence on Height	108	(1)
Dependence of atmospheric effects on the wavelength	108	(1)
Adaptive optics	109	(6)
Measuring the wavefront distortion	111	(2)
Deformable mirrors	113	(1)
Tip--tilt correction	114	(1)
Guide stars	114	(1)
Short exposure images: speckle patterns	115	(5)
A model for a speckle image	116	(3)
References	119	(1)
Single-aperture techniques	120	(21)
Introduction	120	(3)
Masking the aperture of a large telescope	123	(3)
Using the whole aperture: speckle interferometry	126	(8)
Theory of speckle interferometry	128	(2)
Experimental speckle interferometry	130	(3)
Some early results of speckle interferometry	133	(1)
Speckle imaging	134	(7)
The Knox--Thompson algorithm	135	(1)
Speckle masking, or triple correlation	136	(3)
Spectral speckle masking	139	(1)
References	139	(2)
Intensity interferometry	141	(17)
Introduction	141	(1)
Intensity fluctuations and the second-order coherence function	142	(5)
The classical wave interpretation	142	(4)
The quantum interpretation	146	(1)
Estimating the sensitivity of fluctuation correlations	147	(2)
The Narrabri intensity interferometer	149	(3)
The electronic correlator	150	(2)
Data analysis	152	(2)
Double stars	152	(2)
Stellar diameters	154	(1)
Limb darkening	154	(1)
Astronomical results	154	(1)
Retrieving the phase	155	(1)
Conclusion	156	(2)
References	157	(1)
Amplitude interferometry: techniques and instruments	158	(54)
Introduction	158	(3)
The Michelson stellar interferometer	159	(1)
The Narrabri Intensity Interferometer	160	(1)
Aperture masking	161	(1)
What do we demand of an interferometer?	161	(1)
The components of modern amplitude interferometers	162	(22)
Subapertures and telescopes	163	(2)
Beam lines and their dispersion correction	165	(2)
Correction of angular dispersion	167	(1)
Path-length equalizers or delay lines	168	(2)
Beam-reducing optics	170	(1)
Beam combiners	170	(2)
Semireflective beam-combiners	172	(2)
Optical fiber and integrated optical beam-combiners	174	(1)
Star tracking and tip--tilt correction	175	(4)
Fringe dispersion and tracking	179	(1)
Estimating the fringe parameters	180	(3)
Techniques for measuring in the photon-starved region	183	(1)
Modern interferometers with two subapertures	184	(13)
Heterodyne interferometers	185	(1)
Interferometre a 2 Telescopes (I2T)	186	(1)
Grand interferometre a deux telescopes (GI2T)	186	(3)
The Mark III Interferometer	189	(1)
Sydney University stellar interferometer (SUSI)	189	(2)
The large binocular telescope (LBT)	191	(2)
The Mikata optical and infrared array (MIRA-I.2)	193	(1)
Palomar testbed interferometer (PTI)	193	(3)
Keck interferometer	196	(1)
Interferometers with more than two subapertures	197	(15)
The Cambridge optical aperture synthesis telescope (COAST)	197	(3)
Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy (CHARA)	200	(2)
Infrared optical telescope array (IOTA)	202	(1)
Navy prototype optical interferometer (NPOI)	203	(2)
The Berkeley infrared spatial interferometer (ISI)	205	(3)
Very large telescope interferometer (VLTI)	208	(2)
References	210	(2)
The hypertelescope	212	(20)
Imaging with very high resolution using multimirror telescopes	212	(2)
The physical optics of pupil densification	214	(7)
A random array of apertures	214	(5)
A periodic array of apertures	219	(2)
The field of view of a hypertelescope and the crowding limitation	221	(3)
Hypertelescope architectures	224	(4)
Michelson's stellar interferometer as a hypertelescope, and multi-aperture extensions	224	(1)
Hypertelescope versions of multitelescope interferometers	224	(1)
Carlina hypertelescopes	224	(2)
A fiber-optical version of the hypertelescope	226	(2)
Experiments on a hypertelescope system	228	(4)
References	231	(1)
Nulling and coronagraphy	232	(30)
Searching for extrasolar planets and life	232	(1)
Planet detection methods	233	(3)
The relative luminosities of a star and planet	234	(1)
Requirements for imaging planet surface features	235	(1)
Apodization	236	(4)
Apodization using binary masks	238	(1)
Apodization using phase masks	239	(1)
Nulling methods in interferometers	240	(7)
Bracewell's single-pixel nulling in nonimaging interferometers	241	(1)
Bracewell nulling in imaging interferometers	242	(1)
Achromatic nulling in Bracewell interferometers	243	(2)
Starlight leakage in nulling interferometers	245	(2)
Imaging coronagraphy	247	(9)
The Lyot coronagraph in its original and stellar versions	248	(3)
The Roddier--Roddier phase-dot coronagraph	251	(1)
Four-quadrant phase-mask and phase-spiral coronagraphs	251	(1)
The achromatic interference coronagraph	252	(1)
Elementary modeling of mask coronagraphs	252	(1)
Mirror bumpiness tolerance calculated with Marechal's equation	253	(3)
High contrast coronagraphy and apodization	256	(6)
Adaptive coherent correction of mirror bumpiness	256	(1)
Adaptive hologram within the coronagraph	257	(2)
Incoherent cleaning of recorded images	259	(1)
Comparison of coherent and incoherent cleaning	259	(1)
References	260	(2)
A sampling of interferometric science	262	(16)
Interferometric science	262	(1)
Stellar measurements and imaging	262	(9)
Stellar diameters and limb darkening	262	(3)
Star-spots, hot spots	265	(1)
Pulsating stars	266	(1)
Miras	267	(1)
Young stellar object disks and jets	268	(1)
Dust shells, Wolf--Rayets	268	(2)
Binary stars	270	(1)
Galactic and extragalactic sources	271	(3)
SN1987a	271	(1)
R136a	272	(1)
The galactic center	273	(1)
Astrometry	273	(1)
Solar system	274	(1)
The Galilean satellites	274	(1)
Asteroid imaging	274	(1)
Pluto--Charon	275	(1)
Brown dwarfs	275	(1)
Solar feature imaging and dynamics measurements	275	(3)
References	276	(2)
Future ground and space projects	278	(17)
Future ground-based projects	278	(6)
New ground-based long-baseline interferometers	279	(1)
The optical very large array (OVLA)	280	(1)
Toward large Carlina hypertelescopes	281	(1)
Comparison of OVLA and Carlina concepts	281	(1)
Comparing compact and exploded ELTs	282	(1)
Coupling telescopes through fibers: the OHANA project at Mauna Kea	283	(1)
Future space projects	284	(6)
Flotillas of mirrors	285	(1)
Darwin	285	(2)
Terrestrial planet finder (TPF)	287	(1)
Space interferometry mission (SIM)	288	(1)
The exo-Earth imager (EEI)	289	(1)
Simulated Exo-Earth-Imager images	290	(2)
Some speculations on identifying life from colored patches	291	(1)
Extreme baselines for a Neutron Star Imager	292	(3)
References	294	(1)
Appendix A	295	(21)
Electromagnetic waves: a summary	295	(3)
Plane and spherical electromagnetic waves	296	(1)
Energy and momentum in waves	297	(1)
Geometrical phase in wave propagation	298	(2)
Fourier theory	300	(11)
The Fourier transform	301	(1)
Some simple examples	302	(3)
Convolution	305	(2)
Sampling and aliasing	307	(4)
Fraunhofer diffraction	311	(5)
Random objects and their diffraction patterns: speckle images	313	(3)
Appendix B	316	(1)
References	317	(2)
Index	319