Introduction to Robotics

by Niku, Saeed B.

• ISBN13: 9780130613097
• ISBN10: 0130613096
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

This books serves as an introduction to robotics analysis, the systems and sub-systems that constitute robots and robotic systems, and robotics applications.All of the fundamentals of robotics are coveredrobotics analysis; including kinematics, kinetics and force control, and trajectory planning of robots; its sub-systems such as actuators, sensors, and vision systems; as well as robotics applications.Introduction to Roboticsalso includes many subjects related to mechatronics, microprocessor actuator control, integration of sensors, vision systems, and fuzzy logic.For practicing mechanical engineers, electronic and electric engineers, computer engineers, and engineering technologists who would like to learn about robotics.

Table of Contents

Fundamentals	1	(28)
Introduction	1	(1)
What is a Robot?	2	(1)
Classification of Robots	2	(2)
What is Robotics?	4	(1)
History of Robotics	4	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots	5	(1)
Robot Components	6	(2)
Robot Degrees of Freedom	8	(3)
Robot Joints	11	(1)
Robot Coordinates	11	(1)
Robot Reference Frames	12	(1)
Programming Modes	13	(2)
Robot Characteristics	15	(1)
Robot Workspace	16	(1)
Robot Languages	16	(4)
Robot Applications	20	(4)
Other Robots and Applications	24	(1)
Social Issues	25	(1)
Summary	25	(4)
References	26	(1)
Problems	27	(2)
Robot Kinematics: Position Analysis	29	(66)
Introduction	29	(1)
Robots as Mechanisms	29	(2)
Matrix Representation	31	(7)
Representation of a point in space	31	(1)
Representation of a vector in space	32	(1)
Representation of a frame at the origin of a reference frame	33	(1)
Representation of a frame in a reference frame	34	(1)
Representation of a Rigid Body	35	(3)
Homogeneous Transformation Matrices	38	(1)
Representation of Transformations	38	(10)
Representation of a pure translation	39	(1)
Representation of a pure rotation about an axis	40	(3)
Representation of combined transformations	43	(3)
Transformations relative to the rotating	46	(2)
Inverse of Transformation Matrices	48	(5)
Forward and Inverse Kinematics of Robots	53	(14)
Forward and Inverse Kinematic Equations for Position	54	(5)
Forward and Inverse Kinematic Equations for Orientation	59	(8)
Forward and Inverse Kinematic Equations for Position and Orientation	67	(1)
Denavit-Hartenberg Representation of Forward Kinematic Equations of Robots	67	(9)
The Inverse Kinematic Solution of Robots	76	(4)
Inverse Kinematic Programming of Robots	80	(2)
Degeneracy and Dexterity	82	(1)
The Fundamental Problem with the Denavit-Hartenberg Representation	83	(2)
Design Project 1: A Three-degree-of-freedom Robot	85	(1)
Summary	86	(9)
References	87	(1)
Problems	88	(7)
Differential Motions and Velocities	95	(24)
Introduction	95	(1)
Differential Relationships	95	(2)
Jacobian	97	(2)
Differential Motions of a Frame	99	(5)
Differential Translations	100	(1)
Differential Rotations	100	(1)
Differential Rotation about a general axis k	101	(1)
Differential Transformations of a Frame	102	(2)
Interpretation of the Differential Change	104	(1)
Differential Changes Between Frames	104	(2)
Differential Motions of a Robot and Its Hand Frame	106	(1)
Calculation of the Jacobian	107	(3)
How to Relate the Jacobian and the Differential Operator	110	(1)
Inverse Jacobian	111	(4)
Design Project	115	(1)
Summary	116	(3)
References	116	(1)
Problems	117	(2)
Dynamic Analysis and Forces	119	(28)
Introduction	119	(1)
Lagrangian Mechanics: A Short Overview	120	(7)
Effective Moments of Inertia	127	(1)
Dynamic Equations for Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Robots	128	(11)
Kinetic Energy	128	(4)
Potential Energy	132	(1)
The Lagrangian	133	(1)
Robot's Equations of Motion	133	(6)
Static Force Analysis of Robots	139	(2)
Transformation of Forces and Moments Between Coordinate Frames	141	(2)
Design Project	143	(1)
Summary	143	(4)
References	144	(1)
Problems	144	(3)
Trajectory Planning	147	(26)
Introduction	147	(1)
Path vs. Trajectory	147	(1)
Joint-Space vs. Cartesian-Space Descriptions	148	(2)
Basics of Trajectory Planning	150	(3)
Joint-Space Trajectory Planning	153	(12)
Third-Order Polynomial Trajectory Planning	154	(3)
Fifth-Order Polynomial Trajectory Planning	157	(1)
Linear Segments with Parabolic Blends	157	(3)
Linear Segments with Parabolic Blends and Via Points	160	(1)
Higher Order Trajectories	161	(4)
Other Trajectories	165	(1)
Cartesian-Space Trajectories	165	(5)
Continuous Trajectory Recording	170	(1)
Design Project	170	(1)
Summary	171	(2)
References	171	(1)
Problems	172	(1)
Actuators	173	(46)
Introduction	173	(1)
Characteristics of Actuating Systems	174	(4)
Weight, Power-to-Weight Ratio, Operating Pressure	174	(1)
Stiffness vs. Compliance	174	(1)
Use of Reduction Gears	175	(3)
Comparison of Actuating Systems	178	(1)
Hydraulic Devices	178	(6)
Pneumatic Devices	184	(2)
Electric Motors	186	(21)
DC Motors	188	(1)
AC Motors	189	(1)
Brushless DC motors	189	(1)
Direct Drive Electric Motors	189	(1)
Servomotors	190	(1)
Stepper Motors	191	(16)
Microprocessor Control of Electric Motors	207	(3)
Pulse Width Modulation	209	(1)
Direction Control of DC Motors with an H-Bridge	210	(1)
Magnetostrictive Actuators	210	(1)
Shape-Memory Type Metals	211	(1)
Speed Reduction	212	(3)
Design Project 1	215	(1)
Design Project 2	215	(1)
Summary	216	(3)
References	217	(1)
Problems	218	(1)
Sensors	219	(29)
Introduction	219	(1)
Sensor Characteristics	219	(3)
Position Sensors	222	(7)
Potentiometers	222	(1)
Encoders	223	(3)
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT)	226	(2)
Resolvers	228	(1)
Time-of-Travel Displacement Sensor	229	(1)
Velocity Sensors	229	(1)
Encoders	230	(1)
Tachometers	230	(1)
Differentiation of position signal	230	(1)
Acceleration Sensors	230	(1)
Force and Pressure Sensors	231	(2)
Piezoelectric	231	(1)
Force Sensing resistor	231	(1)
Strain gauges	231	(2)
Torque Sensors	233	(1)
Microswitches	233	(1)
Light and Infrared Sensors	233	(1)
Touch and Tactile Sensors	234	(2)
Proximity Sensors	236	(2)
Magnetic Proximity Sensors	236	(1)
Optical Proximity Sensors	236	(1)
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors	237	(1)
Inductive Proximity Sensors	237	(1)
Capacitive Proximity Sensors	237	(1)
Eddy Current Proximity Sensors	238	(1)
Range-finders	238	(3)
Ultrasonic Range Finders	239	(1)
Light Based Range Finders	240	(1)
Sniff Sensors	241	(1)
Vision Systems	241	(1)
Voice Recognition Devices	241	(1)
Voice Synthesizers	242	(1)
Remote Center Compliance (RCC) Device	242	(3)
Design Project	245	(1)
Summary	246	(2)
References	246	(2)
Image Processing and Analysis with Vision Systems	248	(63)
Introduction	248	(1)
Image Processing versus Image Analysis	248	(1)
Two- and Three-Dimensional Image Types	249	(1)
What is an Image	249	(1)
Acquisition of Images	250	(4)
Vidicon Camera	250	(2)
Digital Camera	252	(2)
Digital Images	254	(1)
Frequency Domain vs. Spatial Domain	254	(1)
Fourier Transform of a Signal and its Frequency Content	255	(2)
Frequency Content of an Image; Noise, Edges	257	(2)
Spatial Domain Operations: Convolution Mask	259	(3)
Sampling and Quantization	262	(1)
Sampling Theorem	263	(4)
Image-Processing Techniques	267	(1)
Histogram of Images	267	(1)
Thresholding	268	(1)
Connectivity	269	(2)
Noise Reduction	271	(4)
Convolution Masks	272	(1)
Image Averaging	273	(1)
Frequency Domain	274	(1)
Median Filters	274	(1)
Edge Detection	275	(4)
Hough Transform	279	(3)
Segmentation	282	(1)
Segmentation by Region Growing and Region Splitting	282	(2)
Binary Morphology Operations	284	(4)
Thickening Operation	284	(1)
Dilation	285	(1)
Erosion	285	(1)
Skeletonization	286	(1)
Open Operation	287	(1)
Close Operation	287	(1)
Fill Operation	287	(1)
Gray Morphology Operations	288	(1)
Erosion	288	(1)
Dilation	288	(1)
Image Analysis	288	(1)
Object Recognition by Features	288	(10)
Basic Features Used for Object Identification	289	(1)
Moments	290	(7)
Template Matching	297	(1)
Discrete Fourier Descriptors	297	(1)
Computed Tomography	297	(1)
Depth Measurement with Vision Systems	298	(3)
Scene Analysis vs. Mapping	298	(1)
Range Detection and Depth Analysis	299	(1)
Stereo Imaging	299	(1)
Scene Analysis with Shading and Sizes	300	(1)
Specialized Lighting	301	(1)
Image Data Compression	302	(2)
Intraframe Spatial Domain Techniques	302	(1)
Interframe Coding	303	(1)
Real-Time Image Processing	304	(1)
Heuristics	304	(1)
Applications of Vision Systems	305	(1)
Design project	306	(1)
Summary	306	(5)
References	307	(1)
Problems	308	(3)
Fuzzy Logic Control	311	(20)
Introduction	311	(2)
Fuzzy Control: What is needed	313	(1)
Crisp Values vs. Fuzzy Values	314	(1)
Fuzzy Sets: Degrees of Membership and Truth	314	(1)
Fuzzification	315	(1)
Fuzzy Inference Rule Base	316	(2)
Defuzzification	318	(4)
Center-of-Gravity Method	318	(1)
Mamdani's Inference Method	318	(4)
Simulation of Fuzzy Logic Controller	322	(1)
Applications of Fuzzy Logic in Robotics	323	(4)
Design Project	327	(1)
Summary	328	(3)
References	328	(1)
Problems	328	(3)
APPENDIX A	331	(8)
A.1. Matrix Algebra and Notation: A Review	331	(5)
A.2. Calculation of an Angle From its Sine, Cosine, or Tangent	336	(3)
Problems	338	(1)
Index	339

Excerpts

As one of my students once said years ago, "in the life of every product, there comes a time when you have to shoot the designer and go into production." It seems that the same is true for a book. An author of a textbook such as this one may go on forever trying to cover any and every conceivable subject related to the book in order to generate an all-encompassing book that satisfies every teacher and student. But the intention behind writing this book was not that at all. The intention was to write a book that has most subjects that an undergraduate engineering student or a practicing engineer may need to know to be familiar with the subject, to be able to understand robots and robotics, to be able to design a robot, and to be able to integrate a robot in appropriate applications. As such, it covers all necessary fundamentals of robotics, its components and subsystems, and its applications. This book was originally written for Cal Poly Mechanical Engineering Department's Robotics course. With encouragement from different people, it was somewhat modified to the present form. The book is intended for senior or introductory graduate courses in robotics, as well as for practicing engineers who would like to learn about robotics. Although the book covers a fair amount of mechanics and kinematics, it also covers microprocessor applications, vision systems, sensors, and electric motors. Thus, it can easily be used by mechanical engineers, electronic and electrical engineers, computer engineers, and engineering technologists. The book comprises nine chapters. Chapter 1 covers introductory subjects that familiarize the reader with the necessary background information that is used in the rest of the book. This includes some historical information, robot components, robot characteristics, robot languages, and robotic applications. Chapter 2 covers the forward and inverse kinematics of robots, including frame representations, transformations, position and orientation analysis, and the Denavit-Hartenberg representation of robot kinematics. Chapter 3 continues with differential motions and velocity analysis of robots and frames. Chapter 4 presents an analysis of robot dynamics and forces. Lagrangian mechanics is used as the primary method of analysis and development for this chapter. Chapter 5 discusses methods of path and trajectory planning, both in joint-space and in Cartesian-space. Chapter 6 covers actuators, including hydraulic devices, electric motors such as DC servomotors and stepper motors, Pneumatic devices, as well as many other novel actuators. It also covers microprocessor control of these actuators. Although this book is not a complete mechatronics book, it does cover a fair amount of mechatronics. Except for the design of a microprocessor, many aspects of mechatronic applications are covered in this chapter. Chapter 7 is a discussion of sensors that are used in robotics and robotic applications. Chapter 8 covers vision systems, including many different techniques for image processing and image analysis. Chapter 9 cover some basic principles of fuzzy logic and its applications in microprocessor control and robotics. This coverage is not intended to be a complete and thorough analysis of fuzzy logic, but instead an introduction to it. It is believed that students and engineers who find it interesting will continue on their own. Appendix A is a quick review of matrix algebra and some other mathematical facts that are needed throughout this book. Since the book is written for senior-level engineering students or for practicing engineers, the assumption is that the users are familiar with matrix algebra, as well as with basic feedback control theory and analysis. For this reason, except for some basic review, this material is not separately covered in this book. Obviously, to know enough control theory to be proficient in it, one has to have access to a complete controls book, something that is beyond th